Applications & Pathways
Energy and Economic Advantages of Using Solar Stills for Renewable Energy-Based Multi-Generation of Power and Hydrogen for Residential Buildings
Apr 2024
Publication
The multi-generation systems with simultaneous production of power by renewable energy in addition to polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer and fuel cell (PEMFC-PEMEC) energy storage have become more and more popular over the past few years. The fresh water provision for PEMECs in such systems is taken into account as one of the main challenges for them where conventional desalination technologies such as reverse osmosis (RO) and mechanical vapor compression (MVC) impose high electricity consumption and costs. Taking this point into consideration as a novelty solar still (ST) desalination is applied as an alternative to RO and MVC for better techno-economic justifiability. The comparison made for a residential building complex in Hawaii in the US as the case study demonstrated much higher technical and economic benefits when using ST compared with both MVC and RO. The photovoltaic (PV) installed capacity decreased by 11.6 and 7.3 kW compared with MVC and RO while the size of the electrolyzer declined by 9.44 and 6.13% and the hydrogen storage tank became 522.1 and 319.3 m3 smaller respectively. Thanks to the considerable drop in the purchase price of components the payback period (PBP) dropped by 3.109 years compared with MVC and 2.801 years compared with RO which is significant. Moreover the conducted parametric study implied the high technical and economic viability of the system with ST for a wide range of building loads including high values.
Hydrogen Supply Chain and Refuelling Network Design: Assessment of Alternative Scenarios for the Long-haul Road Freight in the UK
Mar 2023
Publication
Shifting from fossil fuels to clean alternative fuel options such as hydrogen is an essential step in decarbonising the road freight transport sector and facilitating an efficient transition towards zero-emissions goods distribution of the future. Designing an economically viable and competitive Hydrogen Supply Chain (HSC) to support and accelerate the widespread adoption of hydrogen powered Heavy Goods Vehicles (H2-HGVs) is however significantly hindered by the lack of the infrastructure required for producing storing transporting and distributing the required hydrogen. This paper focuses on a bespoke design of a hydrogen supply chain and distribution network for the long-haul road freight transportation in the UK and develops an improved end-to-end and spatially-explicit optimisation tool to perform scenario analysis and provide important first-hand managerial and policy making insights. The proposed methodology improves over existing grid-based methodologies by incorporating spatially-explicit locations of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRSs) and allowing further flexibility and accuracy. Another distinctive feature of the method and the analyses carried out in the paper pertains to the inclusion of bulk geographically agnostic as well as geological underground hydrogen storage options and reporting on significant cost saving opportunities. Finally the curve for H2-HGVs penetration levels safety stock period decisions and the transport mode capacity against hydrogen levelized cost at pump have been generated as important policy making tools to provide decision support and insights into cost resilience and reliability of the HSC.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions of a Hydrogen Engine for Automotive Application through Life-Cycle Assessment
May 2024
Publication
Hydrogen combustion engine vehicles have the potential to rapidly enter the market and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) compared to conventional engines. The ability to provide a rapid market deployment is linked to the fact that the industry would take advantage of the existing internal combustion engine production chain. The aim of this paper is twofold. First it aims to develop a methodology for applying life-cycle assessment (LCA) to internal combustion engines to estimate their life-cycle GHG emissions. Also it aims to investigate the decarbonization potential of hydrogen engines produced by exploiting existing diesel engine technology and assuming diverse hydrogen production routes. The boundary of the LCA is cradle-to-grave and the assessment is entirely based on primary data. The products under study are two monofuel engines: a hydrogen engine and a diesel engine. The hydrogen engine has been redesigned using the diesel engine as a base. The engines being studied are versatile and can be used for a wide range of uses such as automotive cogeneration maritime off-road and railway; however this study focuses on their application in pickup trucks. As part of the redesign process certain subsystems (e.g. combustion injection ignition exhaust gas recirculation and exhaust gas aftertreatment) have been modified to make the engine run on hydrogen. Results revealed that employing a hydrogen engine using green hydrogen (i.e. generated from water electrolysis using wind-based electricity) might reduce GHG emission by over 90% compared to the diesel engine This study showed that the benefits of the new hydrogen engine solution outweigh the increase of emissions related to the redesign process making it a potentially beneficial solution also for reconditioning current and used internal combustion engines.
Performance, Emissions, and Economic Analyses of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
May 2024
Publication
The transport sector is considered to be a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions as this sector emits about one-fourth of global CO2 emissions. Transport emissions contribute toward climate change and have been linked to adverse health impacts. Therefore alternative and sustainable transport options are urgent for decarbonising the transport sector and mitigating those issues. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are a potential alternative to conventional vehicles which can play a significant role in decarbonising the future transport sector. This study critically analyses the recent works related to hydrogen fuel cell integration into vehicles modelling and experimental investigations of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles with various powertrains. This study also reviews and analyses the performance energy management strategies lifecycle cost and emissions of fuel cell vehicles. Previous literature suggested that the fuel consumption and well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions of hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles are significantly lower than that of conventional internal combustion vehicles. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles consume about 29–66 % less energy and cause approximately 31–80 % less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional vehicles. Despite this the lifecycle cost of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles has been estimated to be 1.2–12.1 times higher than conventional vehicles. Even though there has been recent progress in energy management in hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles there are a number of technical and economic challenges to the commercialisation of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. This study presents current knowledge gaps and details future research directions in relation to the research advancement of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Study on the Effects of the Hydrogen Substitution Rate on the Performance of a Hydrogen–Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine under Different Loads
Aug 2023
Publication
Due to having zero carbon emissions and renewable advantages hydrogen has great prospects as a renewable form of alternate energy. Engine load and hydrogen substitution rate have a considerable influence on a hydrogen–diesel dual-fuel engine’s efficiency. This experiment’s objective is to study the influence of hydrogen substitution rate on engine combustion and emission under different loads and to study the impact of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology or main injection timing on the engine’s capability under high load and high hydrogen substitution rate. The range of the maximum hydrogen substitution rate was determined under different loads (30%~90%) at 1800 rpm and then the effects of the EGR rate (0%~15%) and main injection timing (−8 ◦CA ATDC~0 ◦CA ATDC) on the engine performance under 90% high load were studied. The research results show that the larger the load the smaller the maximum hydrogen substitution rate that can be added to the dual-fuel engine. Under each load with the increase of the hydrogen substitution rate the cylinder pressure and the peak heat release rate (HRR) increase the equivalent brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFCequ) decreases the thermal efficiency increases the maximum thermal efficiency is 43.1% the carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission is effectively reduced by 35.2% and the nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission decreases at medium and low loads and the maximum increase rate is 20.1% at 90% load. Under high load with the increase of EGR rate or the delay of main injection timing the problem of NOx emission increases after hydrogen doping can be effectively solved. As the EGR rate rises from 0% to 15% the maximum reduction of NOx is 63.1% and with the delay of main injection timing from −8 ◦CA ATDC to 0 ◦CA ATDC the maximum reduction of NOx is 44.5%.
Hydrogen Refuelling Station Calibration with a Traceable Gravimetric Standard
Apr 2020
Publication
Of all the alternatives to hydrocarbon fuels hydrogen offers the greatest long-term potential to radically reduce the many problems inherent in fuel used for transportation. Hydrogen vehicles have zero tailpipe emissions and are very efficient. If the hydrogen is made from renewable sources such as nuclear power or fossil sources with carbon emissions captured and sequestered hydrogen use on a global scale would produce almost zero greenhouse gas emissions and greatly reduce air pollutant emissions. The aim of this work is to realise a traceability chain for hydrogen flow metering in the range typical for fuelling applications in a wide pressure range with pressures up to 875 bar (for Hydrogen Refuelling Station - HRS with Nominal Working Pressure of 700 bar) and temperature changes from −40 °C (pre-cooling) to 85 °C (maximum allowed vehicle tank temperature) in accordance with the worldwide accepted standard SAE J2601. Several HRS have been tested in Europe (France Netherlands and Germany) and the results show a good repeatability for all tests. This demonstrates that the testing equipment works well in real conditions. Depending on the installation configuration some systematic errors have been detected and explained. Errors observed for Configuration 1 stations can be explained by pressure differences at the beginning and end of fueling in the piping between the Coriolis Flow Meter (CFM) and the dispenser: the longer the distance the bigger the errors. For Configuration 2 where this distance is very short the error is negligible.
Techno-economic Analysis and Predictive Operation of a Power-to-hydrogen for Renewable Microgrids
Oct 2023
Publication
To enhance renewable energy (RE) generation and maintain power balance energy storage systems are of utmost importance. This research introduces a cutting-edge Power-to-Hydrogen (PtH) framework that harnesses hydrogen as a clean and versatile energy storage medium. The primary focus of this study lies in optimizing power flow within a microgrid (G) equipped with RE and energy storage systems considering various factors such as RE generation power demand battery charge cycles and operational costs. To achieve the optimal balance between power generation and consumption a sophisticated mathematical solution is devised. This solution governs the charging and discharging patterns for both battery and electrolyzer ensuring a harmonious power equilibrium. The use of short-term forecasting further refines the optimization process adapting the parameters based on anticipated RE sources and load requirements. To fine-tune the power management solution for day-to-day operations an artificial neural fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)-based shortterm prediction model is employed. The predictive analysis provides confidence intervals for crucial aspects including power generation demand battery charging cycles and hydrogen generation. This facilitates precise cost estimation across various hydrogen and heat price ranges. the proposed PtH optimization framework offers an efficient approach to balance power generation and consumption in Gs driven by RE sources and energy storage. To validate the proposed approach numerical simulations are performed based on data from wind and solar farms load requirements and cost of energy. The results show that the proposed energy management strategy significantly reduces operational costs and optimizes PtH generation while maintaining power balance within the microgrid (G). The predictive approach helps fine-tune the optimization process improving efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The research convincingly demonstrate the economic advantages of adopting hydrogen as an energy storage medium paving the way for a cleaner and more sustainable energy future.
Power Cost and CO2 Emissions for a Microgrid with Hydrogen Storage and Electric Vehicles
Nov 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is considered the primary energy source of the future. The best use of hydrogen is in microgrids that have renewable energy sources (RES). These sources have a small impact on the environment when it comes to carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions and a power generation cost close to that of conventional power plants. Therefore it is important to study the impact on the environment and the power cost. The proposed microgrid comprises loads RESs (micro-hydro and photovoltaic power plants) a hydrogen storage tank an electric battery and fuel cell vehicles. The power cost and CO2 emissions are calculated and compared for various scenarios including the four seasons of the year compared with the work of other researchers. The purpose of this paper is to continuously supply the loads and vehicles. The results show that the microgrid sources and hydrogen storage can supply consumers during the spring and summer. For winter and autumn the power grid and steam reforming of natural gas must be used to cover the demand. The highest power costs and CO2 emissions are for winter while the lowest are for spring. The power cost increases during winter between 20:00 and 21:00 by 336%. The CO2 emissions increase during winter by 8020%.
Science and Technology of Ammonia Combustion
Nov 2018
Publication
This paper focuses on the potential use of ammonia as a carbon-free fuel and covers recent advances in the development of ammonia combustion technology and its underlying chemistry. Fulfilling the COP21 Paris Agreement requires the de-carbonization of energy generation through utilization of carbon-neutral and overall carbon-free fuels produced from renewable sources. Hydrogen is one of such fuels which is a potential energy carrier for reducing greenhouse-gas emissions. However its shipment for long distances and storage for long times present challenges. Ammonia on the other hand comprises 17.8% of hydrogen by mass and can be produced from renewable hydrogen and nitrogen separated from air. Furthermore thermal properties of ammonia are similar to those of propane in terms of boiling temperature and condensation pressure making it attractive as a hydrogen and energy carrier. Ammonia has been produced and utilized for the past 100 years as a fertilizer chemical raw material and refrigerant. Ammonia can be used as a fuel but there are several challenges in ammonia combustion such as low flammability high NOx emission and low radiation intensity. Overcoming these challenges requires further research into ammonia flame dynamics and chemistry. This paper discusses recent successful applications of ammonia fuel in gas turbines co-fired with pulverize coal and in industrial furnaces. These applications have been implemented under the Japanese ‘Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion Program (SIP): Energy Carriers’. In addition fundamental aspects of ammonia combustion are discussed including characteristics of laminar premixed flames counterflow twin-flames and turbulent premixed flames stabilized by a nozzle burner at high pressure. Furthermore this paper discusses details of the chemistry of ammonia combustion related to NOx production processes for reducing NOx and validation of several ammonia oxidation kinetics models. Finally LES results for a gas-turbine-like swirl-burner are presented for the purpose of developing low-NOx single-fuelled ammonia gas turbine combustors.
An Integrated Demand Response Dispatch Strategy for Low-carbon Energy Supply Park Considering Electricity-Hydrogen-Carbon Coordination
Apr 2023
Publication
Driven by the goal of ‘carbon peak carbon neutrality’ an integrated demand response strategy for integrated electricity– hydrogen energy systems is proposed for low-carbon energy supply parks considering the multi-level and multi-energy characteristics of campus-based microgrids. Firstly considering the spatial and temporal complementary nature of wind and photovoltaic generation and energy utilization the energy flow framework of the park is built based on the electricity and hydrogen energy carriers. Clean energy is employed as the main energy supply and power heat cooling and gas loads are considered energy consumption. Secondly the operation mechanism of coupled hydrogen storage hydrogen fuel cell and carbon capture equipment is analyzed in the two-stage power-to-gas conversion process. Thirdly considering the operating costs and environmental costs of the park an integrated demand response dispatch model is constructed for the coupled electricity– hydrogen–carbon system while satisfying the system equipment constraints network constraints and energy balance constraints of the park system. Finally Case study in an energy supply park system is implemented. The dispatch results of the integrated demand response with customer participation in the conventional electricity–hydrogen and electricity–hydrogen–carbon modes are compared to verify the effectiveness of the proposed strategy in renewable accommodation environmental protection and economic benefits.
Assessment of Hydrogen Energy Industry Chain Based on Hydrogen Production Methods, Storage, and Utilization
Apr 2024
Publication
To reach climate neutrality by 2050 a goal that the European Union set itself it is necessary to change and modify the whole EU’s energy system through deep decarbonization and reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions. The study presents a current insight into the global energy-transition pathway based on the hydrogen energy industry chain. The paper provides a critical analysis of the role of clean hydrogen based on renewable energy sources (green hydrogen) and fossil-fuels-based hydrogen (blue hydrogen) in the development of a new hydrogen-based economy and the reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions. The actual status costs future directions and recommendations for low-carbon hydrogen development and commercial deployment are addressed. Additionally the integration of hydrogen production with CCUS technologies is presented.
Perspectives on the Development of Technologies for Hydrogen as a Carrier of Sustainable Energy
Aug 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is a prospective energy carrier because there are practically no gaseous emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere during its use as a fuel. The great benefit of hydrogen being a practically inexhaustible carbon-free fuel makes it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels. I.e. there is a circular process of energy recovery and use. Another big advantage of hydrogen as a fuel is its high energy content per unit mass compared to fossil fuels. Nowadays hydrogen is broadly used as fuel in transport including fuel cell applications as a raw material in industry and as an energy carrier for energy storage. The mass exploitation of hydrogen in energy production and industry poses some important challenges. First there is a high price for its production compared to the price of most fossil fuels. Next the adopted traditional methods for hydrogen production like water splitting by electrolysis and methane reforming lead to the additional charging of the atmosphere with carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas. This fact prompts the use of renewable energy sources for electrolytic hydrogen production like solar and wind energy hydropower etc. An important step in reducing the price of hydrogen as a fuel is the optimal design of supply chains for its production distribution and use. Another group of challenges hindering broad hydrogen utilization are storage and safety. We discuss some of the obstacles to broad hydrogen application and argue that they should be overcome by new production and storage technologies. The present review summarizes the new achievements in hydrogen application production and storage. The approach of optimization of supply chains for hydrogen production and distribution is considered too.
Renewable Hydrogen Requirements and Impacts for Network Balancing: A Queensland Cae Study
Dec 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is the gas of the moment: an abundant element that can be created using renewable energy transported in gaseous or liquid form and offering the ability to provide energy with only water vapour as an emission. Hydrogen can also be used in a fuel blend in electricity generation gas turbines providing a low carbon option for providing the peak electricity to cover high demand and firming.<br/>While the electricity grid is itself transforming to decarbonising hard-to-abate industries such as cement and bauxite refineries are slower to reduce emissions constrained by their high temperature process requirements. Hydrogen offers a solution allowing onsite production process heat with waste heat recovery supporting blended gas turbine generation for onsite electricity supply.<br/>This article builds on decarbonisation pathway simulation results from an ANEM model of the electricity grid identifying the amount of peak demand energy required from gas turbines. The research then examines the quantity flow rate storage requirements and emissions reduction if this peak generation were supplied by open cycle hydrogen capable gas turbines.
The Fuel Flexibility of Gas Turbines: A Review and Retrospective Outlook
May 2023
Publication
Land-based gas turbines (GTs) are continuous-flow engines that run with permanent flames once started and at stationary pressure temperature and flows at stabilized load. Combustors operate without any moving parts and their substantial air excess enables complete combustion. These features provide significant space for designing efficient and versatile combustion systems. In particular as heavy-duty gas turbines have moderate compression ratios and ample stall margins they can burn not only high- and medium-BTU fuels but also low-BTU ones. As a result these machines have gained remarkable fuel flexibility. Dry Low Emissions combustors which were initially confined to burning standard natural gas have been gradually adapted to an increasing number of alternative gaseous fuels. The paper first delivers essential technical considerations that underlie this important fuel portfolio. It then reviews the spectrum of alternative GT fuels which currently extends from lean gases (coal bed coke oven blast furnace gases . . . ) to rich refinery streams (LPG olefins) and from volatile liquids (naphtha) to heavy hydrocarbons. This “fuel diet” also includes biogenic products (biogas biodiesel and ethanol) and especially blended and pure hydrogen the fuel of the future. The paper also outlines how historically land-based GTs have gradually gained new fuel territories thanks to continuous engineering work lab testing experience extrapolation and validation on the field.
Techno‐Economic Analysis of Hydrogen as a Storage Solution in an Integrated Energy System for an Industrial Area in China
Jun 2024
Publication
This study proposes four kinds of hybrid source–grid–storage systems consisting of pho‐ tovoltaic and wind energy and a power grid including different batteries and hydrogen storage systems for Sanjiao town. HOMER‐PRO was applied for the optimal design and techno‐economic analysis of each case aiming to explore reproducible energy supply solutions for China’s industrial clusters. The results show that the proposed system is a fully feasible and reliable solution for in‐ dustry‐based towns like Sanjiao in their pursuit of carbon neutrality. In addition the source‐side price sensitivity analysis found that the hydrogen storage solution was cost‐competitive only when the capital costs on the storage and source sides were reduced by about 70%. However the hydro‐ gen storage system had the lowest carbon emissions about 14% lower than the battery ones. It was also found that power generation cost reduction had a more prominent effect on the whole system’s NPC and LCOE reduction. This suggests that policy support needs to continue to push for genera‐ tion‐side innovation and scaling up while research on different energy storage types should be en‐ couraged to serve the needs of different source–grid–load–storage systems.
A Study on the Promoting Role of Renewable Hydrogen in the Transformation of Petroleum Refining Pathways
Jun 2024
Publication
The refining industry is shifting from decarbonization to hydrogenation for processing heavy fractions to reduce pollution and improve efficiency. However the carbon footprint of hydrogen production presents significant environmental challenges. This study couples refinery linear programming models with life cycle assessment to evaluate from a long-term perspective the role of low-carbon hydrogen in promoting sustainable and profitable hydrogenation refining practices. Eight hydrogen-production pathways were examined including those based on fossil fuels and renewable energy providing hydrogen for three representative refineries adopting hydrogenation decarbonization and co-processing routes. Learning curves were used to predict future hydrogen cost trends. Currently hydrogenation refineries using fossil fuels benefit from significant cost advantages in hydrogen production demonstrating optimal economic performance. However in the long term with increasing carbon taxes hydrogenation routes will be affected by the high carbon emissions associated with fossil-based hydrogen losing economic advantages compared to decarbonization pathways. With increasing installed capacity and technological advancements low-carbon hydrogen is anticipated to reach cost parity with fossil-based hydrogen before 2060. Coupling renewable hydrogen is expected to yield the most significant economic advantages for hydrogenation refineries in the long term. Renewable hydrogen drives the transition of refining processing routes from a decarbonization-oriented approach to a hydrogenation-oriented paradigm resulting in cleaner refining processes and enhanced competitiveness under emission-reduction pressures.
Optimization of the Joint Operation of an Electricity–Heat– Hydrogen–Gas Multi-Energy System Containing Hybrid Energy Storage and Power-to-Gas–Combined Heat and Power
Jun 2024
Publication
With the continuous development of hydrogen storage systems power-to-gas (P2G) and combined heat and power (CHP) the coupling between electricity–heat–hydrogen–gas has been promoted and energy conversion equipment has been transformed from an independent operation with low energy utilization efficiency to a joint operation with high efficiency. This study proposes a low-carbon optimization strategy for a multi-energy coupled IES containing hydrogen energy storage operating jointly with a two-stage P2G adjustable thermoelectric ratio CHP. Firstly the hydrogen energy storage system is analyzed to enhance the wind power consumption ability of the system by dynamically absorbing and releasing energy at the right time through electricity–hydrogen coupling. Then the two-stage P2G operation process is refined and combined with the CHP operation with an adjustable thermoelectric ratio to further improve the low-carbon and economic performance of the system. Finally multiple scenarios are set up and the comparative analysis shows that the addition of a hydrogen storage system can increase the wind power consumption capacity of the system by 4.6%; considering the adjustable thermoelectric ratio CHP and the twostage P2G the system emissions reduction can be 5.97% and 23.07% respectively and the total cost of operation can be reduced by 7.5% and 14.5% respectively.
Green Hydrogen Energy Systems: A Review on Their Contribution to a Renewable Energy System
Jun 2024
Publication
Accelerating the transition to a cleaner global energy system is essential for tackling the climate crisis and green hydrogen energy systems hold significant promise for integrating renewable energy sources. This paper offers a thorough evaluation of green hydrogen’s potential as a groundbreaking alternative to achieve near-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within a renewable energy framework. The paper explores current technological options and assesses the industry’s present status alongside future challenges. It also includes an economic analysis to gauge the feasibility of integrating green hydrogen providing a critical review of the current and future expectations for the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Depending on the geographic location and the technology employed the LCOH for green hydrogen can range from as low as EUR 1.12/kg to as high as EUR 16.06/kg. Nonetheless the findings suggest that green hydrogen could play a crucial role in reducing GHG emissions particularly in hard-to-decarbonize sectors. A target LCOH of approximately EUR 1/kg by 2050 seems attainable in some geographies. However there are still significant hurdles to overcome before green hydrogen can become a cost-competitive alternative. Key challenges include the need for further technological advancements and the establishment of hydrogen policies to achieve cost reductions in electrolyzers which are vital for green hydrogen production.
Component and System Levels Limitations in Power-Hydrogen Systems: Analytical Review
Jun 2024
Publication
This study identifies limitations and research and development (R&D) gaps at both the component and system levels for hydrogen energy systems (HESs) and specifies how these limitations impact HES adoption within the electric power system (EPS) decarbonization roadmap. To trace these limitations and potential solutions an analytical review is conducted in electrification and integration of HESs renewable energy sources (RESs) and multi-carrier energy systems (MCESs) in sequence. The study also innovatively categorizes HES integration challenges into component and system levels. At the component level technological aspects of hydrogen generation storage transportation and refueling are explored. At the system level HES coordination hydrogen market frameworks and adoption challenges are evaluated. Findings highlight R&D gaps including misalignment between HES operational targets and techno-economic development integration insufficiency model deficiencies and challenges in operational complexity. This study provides insights for sustainable energy integration by supporting the transition to a decarbonized energy system.
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