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Problems of Hydrogen Doping in the Methane Fermentation Process and of Energetic Use of the Gas Mixture
Jul 2021
Publication
This article discusses the technology for doping hydrogen into the fermenter to increase methane production and the amount of energy in the mixture. Hydrogen doping is anticipated to enable more carbon to be applied to produce methane. Hydrogen is proposed to be produced by using excess electricity from for example off-peak electricity hours at night. The possibilities of using a mixture of hydrogen and biogas for combustion in boilers and internal combustion engines have been determined. It has been proven that the volumetric addition of hydrogen reduces the heat of combustion of the mixture. Problems arising from hydrogen doping during the methane fermentation process have been identified.
Hungary's National Hydrogen Strategy
May 2021
Publication
Hungary’s National Hydrogen Strategy (hereinafter referred to as: Strategy) is ambitious but provides a realistic vision of the future as it opens the way for the establishment of a hydrogen economy therefore contributing to the achievement of decarbonisation goals and providing an opportunity for Hungary to become an active participant of the European hydrogen sector. On the long term the Strategy focuses on “green” hydrogen but in addition to hydrogen based on electricity generated using renewable resources primarily solar energy Hungary does not ignore opportunities for hydrogen production based on carbon-free energy accessed either through a nuclear basis or from the network. Additionally in the short and medium term a rapid reduction in emissions and the establishment of a viable hydrogen market will also require low-carbon hydrogen.
Understanding Corrosion Morphology of Duplex Stainless Steel Wire in Chloride Electrolyte
Jul 2021
Publication
The corrosion morphology in grade 2205 duplex stainless steel wire was studied to understand the nature of pitting and the causes of the ferrite phase’s selective corrosion in acidic (pH 3) NaCl solutions at 60 °C. It is shown that the corrosion mechanism is always pitting which either manifests lacy cover perforation or densely arrayed selective cavities developing selectively on the ferrite phase. Pits with a lacy metal cover form in concentrated chloride solutions whereas the ferrite phase’s selective corrosion develops in diluted electrolytes showing dependency on the chloride-ion concentration. The pit perforation is probabilistic and occurs on both austenite and ferrite grains. The lacy metal covers collapse in concentrated solutions but remain intact in diluted electrolytes. The collapse of the lacy metal cover happens due to hydrogen embrittlement. Pit evolution is deterministic and occurs selectively in the ferrite phase in light chloride solutions.
Location-dependent Effect of Nickel on Hydrogen Dissociation and Diffusion on Mg (0001) Surface: Insights into Hydrogen Storage Material Design
Apr 2021
Publication
Density functional theory (DFT) calculations have been performed to investigate the hydrogen dissociation and diffusion on Mg (0001) surface with Ni incorporating at various locations. The results show that Ni atom is preferentially located inside Mg matrix rather than in/over the topmost surface. Further calculations reveal that Ni atom locating in/over the topmost Mg (0001) surface exhibits excellent catalytic effect on hydrogen dissociation with an energy barrier of less than 0.05 eV. In these cases the rate-limiting step has been converted from hydrogen dissociation to surface diffusion. In contrast Ni doping inside Mg bulk not only does little help to hydrogen dissociation but also exhibits detrimental effect on hydrogen diffusion. Therefore it is crucial to stabilize the Ni atom on the surface or in the topmost layer of Mg (0001) surface to maintain its catalytic effect. For all the case of Ni-incorporated Mg (0001) surfaces the hydrogen atom prefers firstly immigrate along the surface and then penetrate into the bulk. It is expected that the theoretical findings in the present study could offer fundamental guidance to future designing on efficient Mg-based hydrogen storage materials.
Improvement of Temperature and Humidity Control of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells
Sep 2021
Publication
Temperature and humidity are two important interconnected factors in the performance of PEMFCs (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells). The fuel and oxidant humidity and stack temperature in a fuel cell were analyzed in this study. There are many factors that affect the temperature and humidity of the stack. We adopt the fuzzy control method of multi-input and multi-output to control the temperature and humidity of the stack. A model including a driver vehicle transmission motor air feeding electrical network stack hydrogen supply and cooling system was established to study the fuel cell performance. A fuzzy controller is proven to be better in improving the output power of fuel cells. The three control objectives are the fan speed control for regulating temperature the solenoid valve on/off control of the bubble humidifier for humidity variation and the speed of the pump for regulating temperature difference. In addition the results from the PID controller stack model and the fuzzy controller stack model are compared in this research. The fuel cell bench test has been built to validate the effectiveness of the proposed fuzzy control. The maximum temperature of the stack can be reduced by 5 ◦C with the fuzzy control in this paper so the fuel cell output voltage (power) increases by an average of approximately 5.8%.
An Overview of Economic Analysis and Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas Conversion Technologies
Dec 2020
Publication
This study presents an overview of the economic analysis and environmental impact of natural gas conversion technologies. Published articles related to economic analysis and environmental impact of natural gas conversion technologies were reviewed and discussed. The economic analysis revealed that the capital and the operating expenditure of each of the conversion process is strongly dependent on the sophistication of the technical designs. The emerging technologies are yet to be economically viable compared to the well-established steam reforming process. However appropriate design modifications could significantly reduce the operating expenditure and enhance the economic feasibility of the process. The environmental analysis revealed that emerging technologies such as carbon dioxide (CO2) reforming and the thermal decomposition of natural gas offer advantages of lower CO2 emissions and total environmental impact compared to the well-established steam reforming process. Appropriate design modifications such as steam reforming with carbon capture storage and utilization the use of an optimized catalyst in thermal decomposition and the use of solar concentrators for heating instead of fossil fuel were found to significantly reduced the CO2 emissions of the processes. There was a dearth of literature on the economic analysis and environmental impact of photocatalytic and biochemical conversion processes which calls for increased research attention that could facilitate a comparative analysis with the thermochemical processes.
Hydrogen Embrittlement and Oxide Layer Effect in the Cathodically Charged Zircaloy-2
Apr 2020
Publication
Poland The present paper is aimed at determining the less investigated effects of hydrogen uptake on the microstructure and the mechanical behavior of the oxidized Zircaloy-2 alloy. The specimens were oxidized and charged with hydrogen. The different oxidation temperatures and cathodic current densities were applied. The scanning electron microscopy X-ray electron diffraction spectroscopy hydrogen absorption assessment tensile and nanoindentation tests were performed. At low oxidation temperatures an appearance of numerous hydrides and cracks and a slight change of mechanical properties were noticed. At high-temperature oxidation the oxide layer prevented the hydrogen deterioration of the alloy. For nonoxidized samples charged at different current density nanoindentation tests showed that both hardness and Young’s modulus revealed the minims at specific current value and the stepwise decrease in hardness during hydrogen desorption. The obtained results are explained by the barrier effect of the oxide layer against hydrogen uptake softening due to the interaction of hydrogen and dislocations nucleated by indentation test and hardening caused by the decomposition of hydrides. The last phenomena may appear together and result in hydrogen embrittlement in forms of simultaneous hydrogen-enhanced localized plasticity and delayed hydride cracking.
Tantalum (Oxy)Nitride: Narrow Bandgap Photocatalysts for Solar Hydrogen Generation
Jul 2017
Publication
Photocatalytic water splitting which directly converts solar energy into hydrogen is one of the most desirable solar-energy-conversion approaches. The ultimate target of photocatalysis is to explore efficient and stable photocatalysts for solar water splitting. Tantalum (oxy)nitride-based materials are a class of the most promising photocatalysts for solar water splitting because of their narrow bandgaps and sufficient band energy potentials for water splitting. Tantalum (oxy)nitride-based photocatalysts have experienced intensive exploration and encouraging progress has been achieved over the past years. However the solar-to-hydrogen (STH) conversion efficiency is still very far from its theoretical value. The question of how to better design these materials in order to further improve their water-splitting capability is of interest and importance. This review summarizes the development of tantalum (oxy)nitride-based photocatalysts for solar water spitting. Special interest is paid to important strategies for improving photocatalytic water-splitting efficiency. This paper also proposes future trends to explore in the research area of tantalum-based narrow bandgap photocatalysts for solar water splitting.
Roadmap to Hybrid Offshore System with Hydrogen and Power Co-generation
Sep 2021
Publication
Constrained by the expansion of the power grid the development of offshore wind farms may be hindered and begin to experience severe curtailment or restriction. The combination of hydrogen production through electrolysis and hydrogen-to-power is considered to be a potential option to achieve the goal of low-carbon and energy security. This work investigates the competitiveness of different system configurations to export hydrogen and/or electricity from offshore plants with particular emphasis on unloading the mixture of hydrogen and electricity to end-users on land. Including the levelized energy cost and net present value a comprehensive techno-economic assessment method is proposed to analyze the offshore system for five scenarios. Assuming that the baseline distance is 10 km the results show that exporting hydrogen to land through pipelines shows the best economic performance with the levelized energy cost of 3.40 $/kg. For every 10 km increase in offshore distance the net present value of the project will be reduced by 5.69 MU$ and the project benefit will be positive only when the offshore distance is less than 53.5 km. An important finding is that the hybrid system under ship transportation mode is not greatly affected by the offshore distance. Every 10% increase in the proportion of hydrogen in the range of 70%–100% can increase the net present value by 1.43–1.70 MU$ which will increase by 7.36–7.37 MU$ under pipeline transportation mode. Finally a sensitivity analysis was carried out to analyze the wind speed electricity and hydrogen prices on the economic performance of these systems.
Techno-Economic Analysis of Hydrogen and Electricity Production by Biomass Calcium Looping Gasification
Feb 2022
Publication
Combined cycle biomass calcium looping gasification is proposed for a hydrogen and electricity production (CLGCC–H) system. The process simulation Aspen Plus is used to conduct techno-economic analysis of the CLGCC–H system. The appropriate detailed models are set up for the proposed system. Furthermore a dual fluidized bed is optimized for hydrogen production at 700 °C and 12 bar. For comparison calcium looping gasification with the combined cycle for electricity (CLGCC) is selected with the same parameters. The system exergy and energy efficiency of CLGCC–H reached as high as 60.79% and 64.75% while the CLGCC system had 51.22% and 54.19%. The IRR and payback period of the CLGCC–H system based on economic data are calculated as 17.43% and 7.35 years respectively. However the CLGCC system has an IRR of 11.45% and a payback period of 9.99 years respectively. The results show that the calcium looping gasification-based hydrogen and electricity coproduction system has a promising market prospect in the near future.
Quantification of Hydrogen in Nanostructured Hydrogenated Passivating Contacts for Silicon Photovoltaics Combining SIMS-APT-TEM: A Multiscale Correlative Approach
Mar 2021
Publication
Multiscale characterization of the hydrogenation process of silicon solar cell contacts based on c-Si/SiOx/nc-SiCx(p) has been performed by combining dynamic secondary ion mass-spectrometry (D-SIMS) atom probe tomography (APT) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). These contacts are formed by high-temperature firing which triggers the crystallization of SiCx followed by a hydrogenation process to passivate remaining interfacial defects. Due to the difficulty of characterizing hydrogen at the nm-scale the exact hydrogenation mechanisms have remained elusive. Using a correlative TEM-SIMS-APT analysis we are able to locate hydrogen trap sites and quantify the hydrogen content. Deuterium (D) a heavier isotope of hydrogen is used to distinguish hydrogen introduced during hydrogenation from its background signal. D-SIMS is used due to its high sensitivity to get an accurate deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio which is then used to correct deuterium profiles extracted from APT reconstructions. This new methodology to quantify the concentration of trapped hydrogen in nm-scale structures sheds new insights on hydrogen distribution in technologically important photovoltaic materials.
Improved Monitoring and Diagnosis of Transformer Solid Insulation Using Pertinent Chemical Indicators
Jul 2021
Publication
Transformers are generally considered to be the costliest assets in a power network. The lifetime of a transformer is mainly attributable to the condition of its solid insulation which in turn is measured and described according to the degree of polymerization (DP) of the cellulose. Since the determination of the DP index is complex and time-consuming and requires the transformer to be taken out of service utilities prefer indirect and non-invasive methods of determining the DP based on the byproduct of cellulose aging. This paper analyzes solid insulation degradation by measuring the furan concentration recently introduced methanol and dissolved gases like carbon oxides and hydrogen in the insulating oil. A group of service-aged distribution transformers were selected for practical investigation based on oil samples and different kinds of tests. Based on the maintenance and planning strategy of the power utility and a weighted combination of measured chemical indicators a neural network was also developed to categorize the state of the transformer in certain classes. The method proved to be able to improve the diagnostic capability of chemical indicators thus providing power utilities with more reliable maintenance tools and avoiding catastrophic failure of transformers.
A Methodology for Assessing the Sustainability of Hydrogen Production from Solid Fuels
May 2010
Publication
A methodology for assessing the sustainability of hydrogen production using solid fuels is introduced in which three sustainability dimensions (ecological sociological and technological) are considered along with ten indicators for each dimension. Values for each indicator are assigned on a 10-point scale based on a high of 1 and a low of 0 depending on the characteristic of the criteria associated with each element or process utilizing data reported in the literature. An illustrative example is presented to compare two solid fuels for hydrogen production: coal and biomass. The results suggest that qualitative sustainability indicators can be reasonably defined based on evaluations of system feasibility and that adequate flexibility and comprehensiveness is provided through the use of ten indicators for each of the dimensions for every process or element involved in hydrogen production using solid fuels. Also the assessment index values suggest that biomasses have better sustainability than coals and that it may be advantageous to use coals in combination with biomass to increase their ecological and social sustainability. The sustainability assessment methodology can be made increasingly quantitative and is likely extendable to other energy systems but additional research and development is needed to lead to a more fully developed approach.
The Role of Hydrogen in Powering Industry: APPG on Hydrogen report
Jul 2021
Publication
The APPG on Hydrogen has published its report urging the Government to deliver beyond its existing net zero commitments and set ambitious hydrogen targets in forthcoming strategies to reach net zero by 2050.
The All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Hydrogen’s report on the role of ‘Hydrogen in powering industry’ sets out 10 recommendations to support and accelerate the growth of the UK’s hydrogen sector and enable a sustainable energy transition.
The All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Hydrogen’s report on the role of ‘Hydrogen in powering industry’ sets out 10 recommendations to support and accelerate the growth of the UK’s hydrogen sector and enable a sustainable energy transition.
- The Government must continue to expand beyond its existing commitments of 5GW production in the forthcoming Hydrogen Strategy.
- Any forthcoming Government and devolved policies must be complementary of the wider UK low-carbon commitments.
- Industrial clusters should be prioritised for hydrogen use and will be the key catalyst for driving forward the UK’s decarbonisation of industry.
- The Government must commit to incentivising hydrogen production within the UK as opposed to importing this.
- The Government must align hydrogen production pathways with nuclear technology to enhance hydrogen production.
- The Government must develop a UK wide hydrogen network to support the transport sector including a larger-scale implementation of hydrogen refuelling stations.
- Regulators must act quickly to update energy regulations and guidance to support hydrogen’s role in powering industry.
- For hydrogen to expand in the UK a technology neutral approach is required for all types of energy systems.
- Significant and long-term financial support is required for the development deployment and operation of hydrogen technologies.
- Ofgem must ensure the hydrogen market is subject to effective competition to drive down prices for consumers.
Modelling and Experimental Analysis of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Water Electrolysis Cell at Different Operating Temperatures
Nov 2018
Publication
In this paper a simplified model of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) water electrolysis cell is presented and compared with experimental data at 60 ◦C and 80 ◦C. The model utilizes the same modelling approach used in previous work where the electrolyzer cell is divided in four subsections: cathode anode membrane and voltage. The model of the electrodes includes key electrochemical reactions and gas transport mechanism (i.e. H2 O2 and H2O) whereas the model of the membrane includes physical mechanisms such as water diffusion electro osmotic drag and hydraulic pressure. Voltage was modelled including main overpotentials (i.e. activation ohmic concentration). First and second law efficiencies were defined. Key empirical parameters depending on temperature were identified in the activation and ohmic overpotentials. The electrodes reference exchange current densities and change transfer coefficients were related to activation overpotentials whereas hydrogen ion diffusion to Ohmic overvoltages. These model parameters were empirically fitted so that polarization curve obtained by the model predicted well the voltage at different current found by the experimental results. Finally from the efficiency calculation it was shown that at low current densities the electrolyzer cell absorbs heat from the surroundings. The model is not able to describe the transients involved during the cell electrochemical reactions however these processes are assumed relatively fast. For this reason the model can be implemented in system dynamic modelling for hydrogen production and storage where components dynamic is generally slower compared to the cell electrochemical reactions dynamics.
Optimal Configuration of the Integrated Charging Station for PV and Hydrogen Storage
Oct 2021
Publication
This paper designs the integrated charging station of PV and hydrogen storage based on the charging station. The energy storage system includes hydrogen energy storage for hydrogen production and the charging station can provide services for electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles at the same time. To improve the independent energy supply capacity of the hybrid charging station and reduce the cost the components are reasonably configured. To minimize the configuration cost of the integrated charging station and the proportion of power purchase to the demand of the charging station the energy flow strategy of the integrated charging station is designed and the optimal configuration model of optical storage capacity is constructed. The NSGA-II algorithm optimizes the non-inferior Pareto solution set and a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation evaluates the optimal configuration.
Rational Design and Application of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Solar Fuel Production
Jul 2021
Publication
Harnessing solar energy and converting it into renewable fuels by chemical processes such as water splitting and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) reduction is a highly promising yet challenging strategy to mitigate the effects arising from the global energy crisis and serious environmental concerns. In recent years covalent organic framework (COF)-based materials have gained substantial research interest because of their diversified architecture tunable composition large surface area and high thermal and chemical stability. Their tunable band structure and significant light absorption with higher charge separation efficiency of photoinduced carriers make them suitable candidates for photocatalytic applications in hydrogen (H2) generation CO2 conversion and various organic transformation reactions. In this article we describe the recent progress in the topology design and synthesis method of COF-based nanomaterials by elucidating the structure-property correlations for photocatalytic hydrogen generation and CO2 reduction applications. The effect of using various kinds of 2D and 3D COFs and strategies to control the morphology and enhance the photocatalytic activity is also summarized. Finally the key challenges and perspectives in the field are highlighted for the future development of highly efficient COF-based photocatalysts.
Thoughts on the Prospects of Renewable Hydrogen
Oct 2020
Publication
In the last two years or so there has been increasing interest in hydrogen as an energy source in Australia and around the world. Notably this is not the first time that hydrogen has caught our collective interest. Most recently the 2000s saw a substantial investment in hydrogen research development and demonstration around the world. Prior to that the oil crises of the 1970s also stimulated significant investment in hydrogen and earlier still the literature on hydrogen was not lacking. And yet the hydrogen economy is still an idea only.<br/>So what if anything might be different this time?<br/>This is an important question that we all need to ask and for which the author can only give two potential answers. First our need to make dramatic reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has become more pressing since these previous waves of interest. Second renewable energy is considerably more affordable now than it was before and it has consistently outperformed expectations in terms of cost reductions by even its strongest supporters.<br/>While this dramatic and ongoing reduction in the cost of renewables is very promising our need to achieve substantial GHG emission reductions is the crucial challenge. Moreover meeting this challenge needs to be achieved with as little adverse social and economic impact as possible.<br/>When considering what role hydrogen might play we should first think carefully about the massive scale and complexity of our global energy system and the typical prices of the major energy commodities. This provides insights into what opportunities hydrogen may have. Considering a temperate country with a small population like Australia we see that domestic natural gas and transport fuel markets are comparable to and even larger than the electricity market on an energy basis.
Addressing the Low-carbon Million-gigawatt-hour Energy Storage Challenge
Nov 2021
Publication
The energy system of the United States requires several million gigawatt hours of energy storage to meet variable demand for energy driven by (1) weather (heating and cooling) (2) social patterns (daily and weekday/weekend) of work play and sleep (3) weather-dependent energy production (wind and solar) and (4) industrial requirements. In a low-carbon world four storage options can meet this massive requirement at affordable costs: nuclear fuels heat storage hydrocarbon liquids made from biomass and hydrogen. Because of the different energy sector characteristics (electrical supply transportation commercial and industrial) each of these options must be developed. Capital costs associated with electricity storage at this scale using for example batteries and hydroelectric technologies are measured in hundreds of trillions of dollars for the United States alone and thus are not viable.
Few-atom Cluster Model Systems for a Hydrogen Economy
Apr 2020
Publication
To increase the share of renewable zero-emission energy sources such as wind and solar power in our energy supply the problem of their intermittency needs to be addressed. One way to do so is by buffering excess renewable energy via the production of hydrogen which can be stored for later use after re-electrification. Such a clean renewable energy cycle based on hydrogen is commonly referred to as the hydrogen economy. This review deals with cluster model systems of the three main components of the hydrogen economy i.e. hydrogen generation hydrogen storage and hydrogen re-electrification and their basic physical principles. We then present examples of contemporary research on few atom clusters both in the gas phase and deposited to show that by studying these clusters as simplified models a mechanistic understanding of the underlying physical and chemical processes can be obtained. Such an understanding will inspire and enable the design of novel materials needed for advancing the hydrogen economy.
Is Iridium Demand a Potential Bottleneck in the Realization of Large-Scale PEM Water Electrolysis?
Jul 2021
Publication
Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) is a key technology for future sustainable energy systems. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis cells use iridium one of the scarcest elements on earth as catalyst for the oxygen evolution reaction. In the present study the expected iridium demand and potential bottlenecks in the realization of PEMWE for hydrogen production in the targeted GW a−1 scale are assessed in a model built on three pillars: (i) an in-depth analysis of iridium reserves and mine production (ii) technical prospects for the optimization of PEM water electrolyzers and (iii) PEMWE installation rates for a market ramp-up and maturation model covering 50 years. As a main result two necessary preconditions have been identified to meet the immense future iridium demand: first the dramatic reduction of iridium catalyst loading in PEM electrolysis cells and second the development of a recycling infrastructure for iridium catalysts with technical end-of-life recycling rates of at least 90%.
The Czech Republic's Hydrogen Strategy
Jul 2021
Publication
The Czech Republic’s Hydrogen Strategy is being developed in the context of the Hydrogen Strategy for a climate neutral Europe which reflects the European Green Deal objective of climate neutrality by 2050. The objective of the Strategy is thus to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in such a way that the economy shifts smoothly to low-carbon technologies.
This is associated with two strategic goals:
This is associated with two strategic goals:
- Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
- Stimulate the economic growth
- Volume of low-carbon hydrogen production
- Volume of low-carbon hydrogen consumption
- Infrastructure readiness for hydrogen transport and storage
- Progress in R&D and production of hydrogen technologies
- Low-carbon hydrogen production
- Low-carbon hydrogen use
- Hydrogen transport and storage
- Hydrogen technologies
Exploring the Competitiveness of Hydrogen-fueled Gas Turbines in Future Energy Systems
Oct 2021
Publication
Hydrogen is currently receiving attention as a possible cross-sectoral energy carrier with the potential to enable emission reductions in several sectors including hard-to-abate sectors. In this work a techno-economic optimization model is used to evaluate the competitiveness of time-shifting of electricity generation using electrolyzers hydrogen storage and gas turbines fueled with hydrogen as part of the transition from the current electricity system to future electricity systems in Years 2030 2040 and 2050. The model incorporates an emissions cap to ensure a gradual decline in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels targeting near-zero CO2 emissions by Year 2050 and this includes 15 European countries. The results show that hydrogen gas turbines have an important role to play in shifting electricity generation and providing capacity when carbon emissions are constrained to very low levels in Year 2050. The level of competitiveness is however considerably lower in energy systems that still allow significant levels of CO2 emissions e.g. in Year 2030. For Years 2040 and 2050 the results indicate investments mainly in gas turbines that are partly fueled with hydrogen with 30e77 vol.-% hydrogen in biogas although some investments in exclusively hydrogen-fueled gas turbines are also envisioned. Both open cycle and combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT) receive investments and the operational patterns show that also CCGTs have a frequent cyclical operation whereby most of the start-stop cycles are less than 20 h in duration.
Dynamic Simulation and Thermoeconomic Analysis of a Hybrid Renewable System Based on PV and Fuel Cell Coupled with Hydrogen Storage
Nov 2021
Publication
The production of “green hydrogen” is currently one of the hottest topics in the field of renewable energy systems research. Hydrogen storage is also becoming more and more attractive as a flexible solution to mitigate the power fluctuations of solar energy systems. The most promising technology for electricity-to-hydrogen conversion and vice versa is the reversible solid-oxide cell (SOC). This device is still very expensive but it exhibits excellent performance under dynamic operating conditions compared to the competing devices. This work presents the dynamic simulation of a prototypal renewable plant combining a 50 kW photovoltaic (PV) field with a 50 kW solid-oxide electrolyzer cell (SOEC) and a compressed hydrogen tank. The electricity is used to meet the energy demand of a dwelling located in the area of Campi Flegrei (Naples). The SOC efficiency is simulated by developing a mathematical model in MATLAB®. The model also calculates the cell operating temperature as a function of the input current. Once the optimal values of the operating parameters of the SOC are calculated the model is integrated in the transient system simulation tool (TRNSYS) for dynamic analysis. Furthermore this work presents a parametric analysis of the hydrogen storage system (HSS). The results of the energy and environmental analyses show that the proposed system can reach a primary energy saving by 70% and an amount of saved CO2 of 28 tons/year. Some possible future market scenarios are considered for the economic analysis. In the most realistic case the optimal configuration shows a simple pay back lower than 10 years and a profit index of 46%.
Electrolyzers Enhancing Flexibility in Electric Grids
Nov 2017
Publication
This paper presents a real-time simulation with a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL)-based approach for verifying the performance of electrolyzer systems in providing grid support. Hydrogen refueling stations may use electrolyzer systems to generate hydrogen and are proposed to have the potential of becoming smarter loads that can proactively provide grid services. On the basis of experimental findings electrolyzer systems with balance of plant are observed to have a high level of controllability and hence can add flexibility to the grid from the demand side. A generic front end controller (FEC) is proposed which enables an optimal operation of the load on the basis of market and grid conditions. This controller has been simulated and tested in a real-time environment with electrolyzer hardware for a performance assessment. It can optimize the operation of electrolyzer systems on the basis of the information collected by a communication module. Real-time simulation tests are performed to verify the performance of the FEC-driven electrolyzers to provide grid support that enables flexibility greater economic revenue and grid support for hydrogen producers under dynamic conditions. The FEC proposed in this paper is tested with electrolyzers however it is proposed as a generic control topology that is applicable to any load.
Life Cycle Costing Analysis: Tools and Applications for Determining Hydrogen Production Cost for Fuel Cell Vehicle Technology
Jul 2021
Publication
This work investigates life cycle costing analysis as a tool to estimate the cost of hydrogen to be used as fuel for Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles (HFCVs). The method of life cycle costing and economic data are considered to estimate the cost of hydrogen for centralised and decentralised production processes. In the current study two major hydrogen production methods are considered methane reforming and water electrolysis. The costing frameworks are defined for hydrogen production transportation and final application. The results show that hydrogen production via centralised methane reforming is financially viable for future transport applications. The ownership cost of HFCVs shows the highest cost among other costs of life cycle analysis.
Assessment and Lessons Learnt from HIAD 2.0 – Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database
Sep 2019
Publication
The Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database (HIAD) is an international open communication platform collecting systematic data on hydrogen-related undesired events (incidents or accidents). It was initially developed in the frame of the project HySafe an EC co-funded NoE of the 6th Frame Work Programme by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (EC-JRC) and populated by many HySafe partners. After the end of the project the database has been maintained and populated by JRC with publicly available events.<br/>Starting from June 2016 JRC has been developing a new version of the database (HIAD 2.01). With the support of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertaking (FCH 2 JU) the structure of the database and the web-interface have been redefined and simplified resulting in a streamlined user interface compared to the previous version of HIAD. The new version is mainly focused to facilitate the sharing of lessons learnt and other relevant information related to hydrogen technology; the database is publicly released and the events are anonymized. The database currently contains over 250 events. It aims to contribute to improve the safety awareness fostering the users to benefit from the experiences of others as well as to share information from their own experiences.<br/>The FCH 2 JU launched the European Hydrogen Safety Panel (EHSP2) initiative in 2017. The mission of the EHSP is to assist the FCH 2 JU at both programme and project level in assuring that hydrogen safety is adequately managed and to promote and disseminate hydrogen safety culture within and outside of the FCH 2 JU programme. Composed of a multidisciplinary pool of experts – 16 experts in 2018 - the EHSP is grouped in small ad-hoc working groups (task forces) according to the tasks to be performed and the expertise required. In 2018 Task Force 3 (TF3) of the ESHP has encompassed the analysis of safety data and events contained in HIAD 2.0 operated by JRC and supported by the FCH 2 JU. In close collaboration with JRC the EHSP members have systematically reviewed more than 250 events.<br/>This report summarizes the lessons learnt stemmed from this assessment. The report is self-explanatory and hence includes brief introduction about HIAD 2.0 the assessment carried out by the EHSP and the results stemmed from the joint assessment to enable new readers without prior knowledge of HIAD 2.0 to understand the rationale of the overall exercise and the lessons learnt from this effort. Some materials have also been lifted from the joint paper between JRC and EHSP which will also be presented at the International Conference on Hydrogen Safety (ICHS 2019) to provide some general and specific information about HIAD 2.0.
Solar Thermochemical Hydrogen Production in the USA
Jul 2021
Publication
Hydrogen produced from renewable energy has the potential to decarbonize parts of the transport sector and many other industries. For a sustainable replacement of fossil energy carriers both the environmental and economic performance of its production are important. Here the solar thermochemical hydrogen pathway is characterized with a techno-economic and life-cycle analysis. Assuming a further increase of conversion efficiency and a reduction of investment costs it is found that hydrogen can be produced in the United States of America at costs of 2.1–3.2 EUR/kg (2.4–3.6 USD/kg) at specific greenhouse gas emissions of 1.4 kg CO2-eq/kg. A geographical potential analysis shows that a maximum of 8.4 × 1011 kg per year can be produced which corresponds to about twelve times the current global and about 80 times the current US hydrogen production. The best locations are found in the Southwest of the US which have a high solar irradiation and short distances to the sea which is beneficial for access to desalinated water. Unlike for petrochemical products the transport of hydrogen could potentially present an obstacle in terms of cost and emissions under unfavorable circumstances. Given a large-scale deployment low-cost transport seems however feasible.
Dynamic Model to Expand Energy Storage in Form of Battery and Hydrogen Production Using Solar Powered Water Electrolysis for Off Grid Communities
Feb 2022
Publication
In this model we used a 50 WP photovoltaic panel to produce electrical energy. This electricity production was used directly and stored in a battery. In this design we coupled batteries and hydrogen as a means of storing energy. In case of overcharging the battery it will be attached with water electrolysis to convert the excess amount of chemical energy of the battery into hydrogen energy storage. Hydrogen will be stored as a compacted gas and in chemical storage. We used PEM (proton exchange membrane) electrolysis technologies to breakdown water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen which were then stored in the designed tanks. Different supply voltages were used in our practical readings with an average gaining of 22.8 mL/min on a voltage supply of 2. While using Ansys simulation software we extrapolated hydrogen production until reaching 300 mL/min on 12 V of supply (which represents 220% higher production). By using the second phase of this model hydrogen energy was converted back into electrical energy with the help of a PEM (proton exchange membrane) fuel cell when needed. This model explores the feasibility of energy storage in the form of hydrogen and chemical energy for off-grid communities and remote areas comprising batteries water electrolysis and fuel cells. The main purpose of hydrogen storage in this system is to store and handle the extra energy of system produced through PV panel and utilize it for any desired requirements.
Estimation of the Influence of Compressed Hydrogen on the Mechanical Properties of Pipeline Steels
Sep 2021
Publication
Consideration of the possibility of transporting compressed hydrogen through existing gas pipelines leads to the need to study the regularities of the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of steels in relation to the conditions of their operation in pipelines (operating pressure range stress state of the pipe metal etc.). This article provides an overview of the types of influence of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of steels including those used for the manufacture of pipelines. The effect of elastic and plastic deformations on the intensity of hydrogen saturation of steels and changes in their strength and plastic deformations is analyzed. An assessment of the potential losses of transported hydrogen through the pipeline wall as a result of diffusion has been made. The main issues that need to be solved for the development of a scientifically grounded conclusion on the possibility of using existing gas pipelines for the transportation of compressed hydrogen are outlined.
Greenhouse Gas Implications of Extending the Service Life of PEM Fuel Cells for Automotive Applications: A Life Cycle Assessment
Feb 2022
Publication
A larger adoption of hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is typically included in the strategies to decarbonize the transportation sector. This inclusion is supported by life-cycle assessments (LCAs) which show the potential greenhouse gas (GHG) emission benefit of replacing internal combustion engine vehicles with their fuel cell counterpart. However the literature review performed in this study shows that the effects of durability and performance losses of fuel cells on the life-cycle environmental impact of the vehicle have rarely been assessed. Most of the LCAs assume a constant fuel consumption (ranging from 0.58 to 1.15 kgH2/100 km) for the vehicles throughout their service life which ranges in the assessments from 120000 to 225000 km. In this study the effect of performance losses on the life-cycle GHG emissions of the vehicles was assessed based on laboratory experiments. Losses have the effect of increasing the life-cycle GHG emissions of the vehicle up to 13%. Moreover this study attempted for the first time to investigate via laboratory analyses the GHG implications of replacing the hydrophobic polymer for the gas diffusion medium (GDM) of fuel cells to increase their durability. LCA showed that when the service life of the vehicle was fixed at 150000 km the GHG emission savings of using an FC with lower performance losses (i.e. FC coated with fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) instead of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)) are negligible compared to the overall life-cycle impact of the vehicle. Both the GDM coating and the amount of hydrogen saved account for less than 2% of the GHG emissions arising during vehicle operation. On the other hand when the service life of the vehicle depends on the operability of the fuel cell the global warming potential per driven km of the FEP-based FCEV reduces by 7 to 32%. The range of results depends on several variables such as the GHG emissions from hydrogen production and the initial fuel consumption of the vehicle. Higher GHG savings are expected from an FC vehicle with high consumption of hydrogen produced with fossil fuels. Based on the results we recommend the inclusion of fuel-cell durability in future LCAs of FCEVs. We also advocate for more research on the real-life performance of fuel cells employing alternative materials.
Hydrogen Energy Vision 2060: Hydrogen as Energy Carrier in Malaysian Primary Energy Mix – Developing P2G Case
Mar 2021
Publication
The transition of Malaysia from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources provides significant challenges and opportunities for various energy sectors. Incorporation of H2 in the primary energy mix requires a deal of complexity in its relation to production transportation and end-use. The Sarawak State Government in Malaysia implemented a hydrogen energy roadmap for the year 2005–2030 on the state-level but despite the great enthusiasm and full support given by the government the development of hydrogen technology is still far from its goals. This is due to several factors that hinder its progress including (1) inability of hydrogen to be integrated with current primary energy infrastructure (2) limited technology resources to produce sustainable hydrogen and (3) lack of technical expertise in the field of hydrogen. In this paper a potential national roadmap and milestones are presented based on the power-to-gas (P2G) approach combined with its implications on the national natural gas (NG) pipeline network. Besides that the long-term and short-term strategies and implementation mechanisms are discussed in detail. Furthermore complete research schemes are formulated to be inline with the presented vision to further enhance technology development and implementation.
Hy4Heat Safety Assessment: Precis - Work Package 7
May 2021
Publication
The Hy4Heat Safety Assessment has focused on assessing the safe use of hydrogen gas in certain types of domestic properties and buildings. The summary reports (the Precis and the Safety Assessment Conclusions Report) bring together all the findings of the work and should be looked to for context by all readers. The technical reports should be read in conjunction with the summary reports. While the summary reports are made as accessible as possible for general readers the technical reports may be most accessible for readers with a degree of technical subject matter understanding. All of the safety assessment reports have now been reviewed by the HSE.<br/><br/>This document is an overview of the Safety Assessment work undertaken as part of the Hy4Heat programme
Hybrid Hydrogen–PV–e-Mobility Industrial Energy Community Concept—A Technology Feasibility Study
Sep 2021
Publication
As renewable energy sources are spreading the problems of energy usage transport and storage arise more frequently. In order that the performance of energy producing units from renewable sources which have a relatively low efficiency should not be decreased further and to promote sustainable energy consumption solutions a living lab conception was elaborated in this project. At the pilot site the produced energy (by PV panels gas turbines/engines) is stored in numerous ways including hydrogen production. The following uses of hydrogen are explored: (i) feeding it into the national natural gas network; (ii) selling it at a H-CNG (compressed natural gas) filling station; (iii) using it in fuel cells to produce electricity. This article introduces the overall implementation plan which can serve as a model for the hybrid energy communities to be established in the future.
Net Zero after Covid: Behavioural Principles for Building Back Better
Dec 2020
Publication
Alongside our Sixth Carbon Budget Advice the Climate Change Committee (CCC) are publishing a paper from Professor Nick Chater the Committee’s behavioural science specialist. This paper considers three behavioural principles that explain how people have adapted so rapidly and how we might “build back better” as we emerge from the pandemic with a particular focus on meeting the challenge of dramatically reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the coming decades. The principles are:
- The power law of practice: People organizations and whole industries learn to adapt to new ways of working following a surprisingly predictable pattern. This can help predict where adaptation to new ways of living and working is likely to succeed or fail.
- The status quo effect: People and organizations tend to prefer the current status quo but can often adjust rapidly to prefer a new status quo. However we tend to systematically underestimate such effects and therefore can sometimes resist changes that in retrospect we may ultimately prefer.
- Unwritten rules: Our social behaviour is guided by implicit guidelines about what is “appropriate” which can be somewhat independent of our personal values. Changing these implicit rules alongside changes in regulation and the law is crucial to adapting to new circumstances—and the pandemic has shown that rapid change is possible though sometimes resisted (e.g. new norms about mask wearing and social distancing).
A General Vision for Reduction of Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions from the Steel Industry
Aug 2020
Publication
The 2018 IPCC (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s) report defined the goal to limit global warming to 1.5 ◦C by 2050. This will require “rapid and far-reaching transitions in land energy industry buildings transport and cities”. The challenge falls on all sectors especially energy production and industry. In this regard the recent progress and future challenges of greenhouse gas emissions and energy supply are first briefly introduced. Then the current situation of the steel industry is presented. Steel production is predicted to grow by 25–30% by 2050. The dominant iron-making route blast furnace (BF) especially is an energy-intensive process based on fossil fuel consumption; the steel sector is thus responsible for about 7% of all anthropogenic CO2 emissions. In order to take up the 2050 challenge emissions should see significant cuts. Correspondingly specific emissions (t CO2/t steel) should be radically decreased. Several large research programs in big steelmaking countries and the EU have been carried out over the last 10–15 years or are ongoing. All plausible measures to decrease CO2 emissions were explored here based on the published literature. The essential results are discussed and concluded. The specific emissions of “world steel” are currently at 1.8 t CO2/t steel. Improved energy efficiency by modernizing plants and adopting best available technologies in all process stages could decrease the emissions by 15–20%. Further reductions towards 1.0 t CO2/t steel level are achievable via novel technologies like top gas recycling in BF oxygen BF and maximal replacement of coke by biomass. These processes are however waiting for substantive industrialization. Generally substituting hydrogen for carbon in reductants and fuels like natural gas and coke gas can decrease CO2 emissions remarkably. The same holds for direct reduction processes (DR) which have spread recently exceeding 100 Mt annual capacity. More radical cut is possible via CO2 capture and storage (CCS). The technology is well-known in the oil industry; and potential applications in other sectors including the steel industry are being explored. While this might be a real solution in propitious circumstances it is hardly universally applicable in the long run. More auspicious is the concept that aims at utilizing captured carbon in the production of chemicals food or fuels e.g. methanol (CCU CCUS). The basic idea is smart but in the early phase of its application the high energy-consumption and costs are disincentives. The potential of hydrogen as a fuel and reductant is well-known but it has a supporting role in iron metallurgy. In the current fight against climate warming H2 has come into the “limelight” as a reductant fuel and energy storage. The hydrogen economy concept contains both production storage distribution and uses. In ironmaking several research programs have been launched for hydrogen production and reduction of iron oxides. Another global trend is the transfer from fossil fuel to electricity. “Green” electricity generation and hydrogen will be firmly linked together. The electrification of steel production is emphasized upon in this paper as the recycled scrap is estimated to grow from the 30% level to 50% by 2050. Finally in this review all means to reduce specific CO2 emissions have been summarized. By thorough modernization of production facilities and energy systems and by adopting new pioneering methods “world steel” could reach the level of 0.4–0.5 t CO2/t steel and thus reduce two-thirds of current annual emissions.
Research and Development Investment and Collaboration Framework for the Hydrogen Economy in South Korea
Sep 2021
Publication
South Korea developed its hydrogen strategies to achieve carbon neutrality and dominate the hydrogen economy amidst and with the impetus of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The government strives toward the goal via continuous investment in green hydrogen technologies as well as strategic collaborations. To facilitate the transition into the hydrogen economy this study presents a research and development (R&D) investment and collaboration framework as a national strategy. The framework offers abundant information to elucidate the technology R&D spectrum and regional dimensions of the strategy. Furthermore the proposed framework was applied to the Korean hydrogen economy comprising 955 nationally funded projects worth USD 565.7 million. The statuses and trends of the government’s investment in nationally funded research projects are illustrated with regard to the value chains of the hydrogen economies of 16 regions as well as nine technology clusters relating to the hydrogen economy thereby determining the research organizations that played crucial roles in each cluster of the 16 regions between 2015 and 2020. The results indicate that the research organizations in Daejeon acquired the highest government R&D funding in many hydrogen-economy-related research fields and that an R&D spectrum-based research/strategic collaboration is required to accomplish specialized complexes in the regions.
Analysis of Strategic Directions in Sustainable Hydrogen Investment Decisions
Jun 2020
Publication
This study seeks to find the appropriate strategies necessary to make sustainable and effective hydrogen energy investments. Within this scope nine different criteria are defined regarding social managerial and financial factors. A hesitant interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy (IVIF) decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) methodology is considered to calculate the degree of importance of the criteria. Additionally impact relation maps are also generated to visualize the causality relationship between the factors. The findings indicate that the technical dimension has the greatest importance in comparison to managerial and financial factors. Furthermore it is also concluded that storage and logistics research and development and technological infrastructure are the most significant factors to be considered when defining hydrogen energy investment strategies. Hence before investing in hydrogen energy necessary actions should be taken to minimize the storage and logistic costs. Among them building the production site close to the usage area will contribute significantly to this purpose. In this way possible losses during the transportation of hydrogen can be minimized. Moreover it is essential to identify the lowest-cost hydrogen storage method by carrying out the necessary research and development activities thereby increasing the sustainability and effectiveness of hydrogen energy investment projects.
Experimental Study of Hydrogen Production Using Electrolyte Nanofluids with a Simulated Light Source
Dec 2021
Publication
In this research we conducted water electrolysis experiments of a carbon black (CB) based sodium sulfate electrolyte using a Hoffman voltameter. The main objective was to investigate hydrogen production in such systems as well as analyse the electrical properties and thermal properties of nanofluids. A halogen lamp mimicking solar energy was used as a radiation source and a group of comparative tests were also conducted with different irradiation areas. The results showed that by using CB and light it was possible to increase the hydrogen production rate. The optimal CB concentration was 0.1 wt %. At this concentration the hydrogen production rate increased by 30.37% after 20 min of electrolysis. Hence we show that using CB in electrolytes irradiated by solar energy could save the electrical energy necessary for electrolysis processes.
Prospects for the Use of Hydrogen in the Armed Forces
Oct 2021
Publication
The energy security landscape that we envisage in 2050 will be different from that of today. Meeting the future energy needs of the armed forces will be a key challenge not least for military security. The World Energy Council’s World Energy Scenarios forecast that the world’s population will rise to 10 billion by 2050 which will also necessitate an increase in the size of the armed forces. In this context energy extraction distribution and storage become essential to stabilizing the imbalance between production and demand. Among the available solutions Power to Hydrogen (P2H) is one of the most appealing options. However despite the potential many obstacles currently hinder the development of the P2H market. This article aims to identify and analyse existing barriers to the introduction of P2H technologies that use hydrogen. The holistic approach used which was based on a literature survey identified obstacles and possible strategies for overcoming them. The research conducted presents an original research contribution at the level of hydrogen strategies considered in leading countries around the world. The research findings identified unresolved regulatory issues and sources of uncertainty in the armed forces. There is a lack of knowledge in the armed forces of some countries about the process of producing hydrogen energy and its benefits which raises concerns about the consistency of its exploitation. Negative attitudes towards hydrogen fuel energy can be a significant barrier to its deployment in the armed forces. Possible approaches and solutions have also been proposed to eliminate obstacles and to support decision makers in defining and implementing a strategy for hydrogen as a clean energy carrier. There are decisive and unresolved obstacles to its deployment not only in the armed forces
An Improved Fuzzy PID Control Method Considering Hydrogen Fuel Cell Voltage-Output Characteristics for a Hydrogen Vehicle Power System
Sep 2021
Publication
The hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) vehicle is an important clean energy vehicle which has prospects for development. The behavior of the hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) vehicle power system and in particular the proton-exchange membrane fuel cell has been extensively studied as of recent. The development of the dynamic system modeling technology is of paramount importance for HFC vehicle studies; however it is hampered by the separation of the electrochemical properties and dynamic properties. In addition the established model matching the follow-up control method lacks applicability. In attempts to counter these obstructions we proposed an improved fuzzy (Proportional Integral Derivative) PID control method considering HFC voltage-output characteristics. By developing both the electrochemical and dynamic model for HFC vehicle we can realize the coordinated control of HFC and power cell. The simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental results in the two models. The proposed control algorithm has a good control effect in all stages of HFC vehicle operation.
Experimental Study and Thermodynamic Analysis of Hydrogen Production through a Two-Step Chemical Regenerative Coal Gasification
Jul 2019
Publication
Hydrogen as a strategy clean fuel is receiving more and more attention recently in China in addition to the policy emphasis on H2. In this work we conceive of a hydrogen production process based on a chemical regenerative coal gasification. Instead of using a lumped coal gasification as is traditional in the H2 production process herein we used a two-step gasification process that included coking and char-steam gasification. The sensible heat of syngas accounted for 15–20% of the total energy of coal and was recovered and converted into chemical energy of syngas through thermochemical reactions. Moreover the air separation unit was eliminated due to the adoption of steam as oxidant. As a result the efficiency of coal to H2 was enhanced from 58.9% in traditional plant to 71.6% in the novel process. Further the energy consumption decreased from 183.8 MJ/kg in the traditional plant to 151.2 MJ/kg in the novel process. The components of syngas H2 and efficiency of gasification are herein investigated through experiments in fixed bed reactors. Thermodynamic performance is presented for both traditional and novel coal to hydrogen plants.
Can Africa Serve Europe with Hydrogen Energy from Its Renewables?—Assessing the Economics of Shipping Hydrogen and Hydrogen Carriers to Europe from Different Parts of the Continent
Apr 2023
Publication
There exists no single optimal way for transporting hydrogen and other hydrogen carriers from one port to the other globally. Its delivery depends on several factors such as the quantity distance economics and the availability of the required infrastructure for its transportation. Europe has a strategy to invest in the production of green hydrogen in Africa to meet its needs. This study assessed the economic viability of shipping liquefied hydrogen (LH2 ) and hydrogen carriers to Germany from six African countries that have been identified as countries with great potential in the production of hydrogen. The results obtained suggest that the shipping of LH2 to Europe (Germany) will cost between 0.47 and 1.55 USD/kg H2 depending on the distance of travel for the ship. Similarly the transportation of hydrogen carriers could range from 0.19 to 0.55 USD/kg H2 for ammonia 0.25 to 0.77 USD/kg H2 for LNG 0.24 to 0.73 USD/kg H2 for methanol and 0.43 to 1.28 USD/kg H2 for liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). Ammonia was found to be the ideal hydrogen carrier since it recorded the least transportation cost. A sensitivity analysis conducted indicates that an increase in the economic life by 5 years could averagely decrease the cost of LNG by some 13.9% NH3 by 13.2% methanol by 7.9% LOHC by 8.03% and LH2 by 12.41% under a constant distance of 6470 nautical miles. The study concludes with a suggestion that if both foreign and local participation in the development of the hydrogen market is increased in Africa the continent could supply LH2 and other hydrogen carriers to Europe at a cheaper price using clean fuel.
Optimal Operation and Market Integration of a Hybrid Farm with Green Hydrogen and Energy Storage: A Stochastic Approach Considering Wind and Electricity Price Uncertainties
Mar 2024
Publication
In recent years growing interest has emerged in investigating the integration of energy storage and green hydrogen production systems with renewable energy generators. These integrated systems address uncertainties related to renewable resource availability and electricity prices mitigating profit loss caused by forecasting errors. This paper focuses on the operation of a hybrid farm (HF) combining an alkaline electrolyzer (AEL) and a battery energy storage system (BESS) with a wind turbine to form a comprehensive HF. The HF operates in both hydrogen and day-ahead electricity markets. A linear mathematical model is proposed to optimize energy management considering electrolyzer operation at partial loads and accounting for degradation costs while maintaining a straightforward formulation for power system optimization. Day-ahead market scheduling and real-time operation are formulated as a progressive mixed-integer linear program (MILP) extended to address uncertainties in wind speed and electricity prices through a two-stage stochastic optimization model. A bootstrap sampling strategy is introduced to enhance the stochastic model’s performance using the same sampled data. Results demonstrate how the strategies outperform traditional Monte Carlo and deterministic approaches in handling uncertainties increasing profits up to 4% per year. Additionally a simulation framework has been developed for validating this approach and conducting different case studies.
Performance and Emission Optimisation of an Ammonia/ Hydrogen Fuelled Linear Joule Engine Generator
Mar 2024
Publication
This paper presents a Linear Joule Engine Generator (LJEG) powered by ammonia and hydrogen co-combustion to tackle decarbonisation in the electrification of transport propulsion systems. A dynamic model of the LJEG which integrates mechanics thermodynamics and electromagnetics sub-models as well as detailed combustion chemistry analysis for emissions is presented. The dynamic model is integrated and validated and the LJEG performance is optimised for improved performance and reduced emissions. At optimal conditions the engine could generate 1.96 kWe at a thermal efficiency of 34.3% and an electrical efficiency of 91%. It is found that the electromagnetic force of the linear alternator and heat addition from the external combustor and engine valve timing have the most significant influences on performance whereas the piston stroke has a lesser impact. The impacts of hydrogen ratio oxygen concentration inlet pressure and equivalence ratio of ammonia-air on nitric oxide (NO) formation and reduction are revealed using a detailed chemical kinetic analysis. Results indicated that rich combustion and elevated pressure are beneficial for NO reduction. The rate of production analysis indicates that the equivalence ratio significantly changes the relative contribution among the critical NO formation and reduction reaction pathways.
Fuelling the Transition Podcast: The Future of Electrolysers and Hydrogen in the UK
Nov 2021
Publication
ITM Power is a leading electrolyser manufacturer and is a globally recognised expert in hydrogen technologies. In this episode Graham Cooley Chief Executive Officer at ITM Power and John Williams Head of Hydrogen Expertise Cluster at AFRY Management Consulting join us to discuss ITM’s recent announcements. This includes raising £250 million to scale up its electrolyser manufacturing capacity to 5GW per annum by 2024 and forming a partnership with Linde to halve electrolyser manufacturing costs within five years. The episode also explores the UK hydrogen strategy how blue hydrogen compares with green hydrogen the role of electrolysers in hydrogen production and providing flexibility to power grids.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Economic Evaluation of a Power-to-hydrogen System Providing Frequency Regulation Reserves: A Case Study of Denmark
Mar 2023
Publication
Operating costs are dominant in the hydrogen production of a power-to-hydrogen system. An optimal operational strategy or bidding framework is effective in reducing these costs. However it is still found that the production cost of hydrogen is high. As the electrolysis unit is characterized by high flexibility providing ancillary service to the grid becomes a potential pathway for revenue stacking. Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility of providing such a service but the related economics have not been well evaluated. In this work we propose a comprehensive operation model to enable participation in the day-head balancing and reserve markets. Three types of reserves are considered by using different operational constraints. Based on the proposed operation framework we assess the economic performance of a power-to-hydrogen system in Denmark using plentiful actual market data. The results reveal that providing frequency containment reserve and automatic frequency restoration reserve efficiently raises the operational contribution margins. In parallel by investing in the cash flows net present value and break-even hydrogen prices we conclude that providing reserves makes the power-to-hydrogen project more profitable in the studied period and region.
The Role of Hydrogen and Batteries in Delivering Net Zero in the UK by 2050
Apr 2023
Publication
This report presents an analysis of how hydrogen and battery technologies are likely to be utilised in different sectors within the UK including transportation manufacturing the built environment and power. In particular the report compares the use of hydrogen and battery technology across these sectors. In addition it evaluates where these technologies will be in competition where one technology will dominate and where a combination of the two may be used. This sector analysis draws on DNV’s knowledge and experience within both the battery and hydrogen industries along with a review of studies available in the public domain. The analysis has been incorporated into DNV’s Energy Transition Outlook model an integrated system-dynamics simulation model covering the energy system which provides an independent view of the energy outlook from now until 2050. The modelling which includes data on costs demand supply policy population and economic indicators enables the non-linear interdependencies between different parameters to be considered so that decisions made in one sector influence the decision made in another.
Hydrogen Production System Using Alkaline Water Electrolysis Adapting to Fast Fluctuating Photovoltaic Power
Apr 2023
Publication
Using photovoltaic (PV) energy to produce hydrogen through water electrolysis is an environmentally friendly approach that results in no contamination making hydrogen a completely clean energy source. Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) is an excellent method of hydrogen production due to its long service life low cost and high reliability. However the fast fluctuations of photovoltaic power cannot integrate well with alkaline water electrolyzers. As a solution to the issues caused by the fluctuating power a hydrogen production system comprising a photovoltaic array a battery and an alkaline electrolyzer along with an electrical control strategy and energy management strategy is proposed. The energy management strategy takes into account the predicted PV power for the upcoming hour and determines the power flow accordingly. By analyzing the characteristics of PV panels and alkaline water electrolyzers and imposing the proposed strategy this system offers an effective means of producing hydrogen while minimizing energy consumption and reducing damage to the electrolyzer. The proposed strategy has been validated under various scenarios through simulations. In addition the system’s robustness was demonstrated by its ability to perform well despite inaccuracies in the predicted PV power.
Lab-Scale Investigation of the Integrated Backup/Storage System for Wind Turbines Using Alkaline Electrolyzer
Apr 2023
Publication
The depletion of fossil fuel sources has encouraged the authorities to use renewable resources such as wind energy to generate electricity. A backup/storage system can improve the performance of wind turbines due to fluctuations in power demand. The novelty of this study is to utilize a hybrid system for a wind farm using the excess electricity generated by the wind turbines to produce hydrogen in an alkaline electrolyzer (AEL). The hydrogen storage tank stores the produced hydrogen and provides hydrogen to the proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) to generate electricity once the power demand is higher than the electricity generated by the wind turbines. The goal of this study is to use the wind profile of a region in Iran namely the Cohen region to analyze the performance of the suggested integrated system on a micro scale. The output results of this study can be used as a case study for construction in the future based on the exact specification of NTK300 wind turbines. The results indicate that with the minimum power supply of 30 kW from the wind turbines on a lab scale the generated power by the PEMFC will be 1008 W while the maximum generated hydrogen will be 304 mL/h.
Optimal Design of a Hydrogen-powered Fuel Cell System for Aircraft Applications
Mar 2024
Publication
Recently hydrogen and fuel cells have gained interest as an emerging technology to mitigate the effects of climate change caused by the aviation sector. The aim of this work is to evaluate the applicability of this technology to an existing regional aircraft in order to assess its electrification with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving sustainability goals. The design of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell system (PEMFC) with the inclusion of liquid hydrogen storage is carried out. Specifically a general mathematical model is developed which involves multiple scales ranging from individual cells to aircraft scale. First the fuel cell electrochemical model is developed and validated against published polarization curves. Then different sizing approaches are used to compute the overall weight of the hydrogen-based propulsion system in order to optimize the system and minimize its weight. Crucially this work underscores that the feasibility of hydrogenbased fuel cell systems relies not only on hydrogen storage but especially on the electrochemical cell performance which influences the size of the balance of plant and especially its thermal management section. In particular the strategic significance of working with fuel cells at partial loads is demonstrated. This entails achieving an optimal balance between the stacks oversizing and the weights of both hydrogen storage and balance of plant thereby minimizing the overall weight of the system. It is thus shown that an integrated approach is imperative to guide progress towards efficient and implementable hydrogen technology in regional aviation. Furthermore a high-performance PEMFC is analyzed resulting in an overall weight reduction up to nearly 10% compared to the baseline case study. In this way it is demonstrated as technological advancements in PEMFCs can offer further prospects for improving system efficiency.
Blue, Green, and Turquoise Pathways for Minimizing Hydrogen Production Costs from Steam Methane Reforming with CO2 Capture
Nov 2022
Publication
Rising climate change ambitions require large-scale clean hydrogen production in the near term. “Blue” hydrogen from conventional steam methane reforming (SMR) with pre-combustion CO2 capture can fulfil this role. This study therefore presents techno-economic assessments of a range of SMR process configurations to minimize hydrogen production costs. Results showed that pre-combustion capture can avoid up to 80% of CO2 emissions cheaply at 35 €/ton but the final 20% of CO2 capture is much more expensive at a marginal CO2 avoidance cost around 150 €/ton. Thus post-combustion CO2 capture should be a better solution for avoiding the final 20% of CO2. Furthermore an advanced heat integration scheme that recovers most of the steam condensation enthalpy before the CO2 capture unit can reduce hydrogen production costs by about 6%. Two hybrid hydrogen production options were also assessed. First a “blue-green” hydrogen plant that uses clean electricity to heat the reformer achieved similar hydrogen production costs to the pure blue configuration. Second a “blue turquoise” configuration that replaces the pre-reformer with molten salt pyrolysis for converting higher hydrocarbons to a pure carbon product can significantly reduce costs if carbon has a similar value to hydrogen. In conclusion conventional pre-combustion CO2 capture from SMR is confirmed as a good solution for kickstarting the hydrogen economy and it can be tailored to various market conditions with respect to CO2 electricity and pure carbon prices.
Underground Hydrogen Storage to Balance Seasonal Variations in Energy Demand: Impact of Well Configuration on Storage Performance in Deep Saline Aquifers
Mar 2023
Publication
Grid-scale underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is essential for the decarbonization of energy supply systems on the path towards a zero-emissions future. This study presents the feasibility of UHS in an actual saline aquifer with a typical dome-shaped anticline structure to balance the potential seasonal mismatches between energy supply and demand in the UK domestic heating sector. As a main requirement for UHS in saline aquifers we investigate the role of well configuration design in enhancing storage performance in the selected site via numerical simulation. The results demonstrate that the efficiency of cyclic hydrogen recovery can reach around 70% in the short term without the need for upfront cushion gas injection. Storage capacity and deliverability increase in successive storage cycles for all scenarios with the co-production of water from the aquifer having a minimal impact on the efficiency of hydrogen recovery. Storage capacity and deliverability also increase when additional wells are added to the storage site; however the distance between wells can strongly influence this effect. For optimum well spacing in a multi-well storage scenario within a dome-shaped anticline structure it is essential to attain an efficient balance between well pressure interference effects at short well distances and the gas uprising phenomenon at large distances. Overall the findings obtained and the approach described can provide effective technical guidelines pertaining to the design and optimization of hydrogen storage operations in deep saline aquifers.
Impact of Climate and Geological Storage Potential on Feasibility of Hydrogen Fuels
Apr 2023
Publication
Electrofuels including hydrogen methane and ammonia have been suggested as one pathway in achieving net-zero greenhouse gas energy systems. They can play a role in providing an energy storage and fuel or feedstock to hard-to-abate sectors. In future energy systems their role is often studied in case studies adhering to specific region. In this study we study their role by defining multiple archetypal energy systems which represent approximations of real systems in different regions. Comparing the role of electrofuels across the cost-optimized systems relying only on renewable energy in power generation we found that hydrogen was a significant energy vector in all systems with its annual quantity approaching the classic electricity demand. The role of renewable methane was very limited. Electrofuel storages were needed in all systems and their capacity was the highest in the northern Hemiboreal system. Absence of cavern storage potential did not hamper the significance of electrofuels but increased the role of ammonia and led to average 5.5 % systemic cost increase. Systems where reservoir hydropower was scarce or level of electricity consumption was high needed more fuel storages. The findings of this study can help for better understanding of what kind of storage and generation technologies will be most useful in future carbon-neutral systems in different types of regions.
Is Greece Ready for a Hydrogen Energy Transition?—Quantifying Relative Costs in Hard to Abate Industries
Apr 2024
Publication
During the past few years hydrogen use has come to be considered as an alternative energy carrier in a future decarbonized world. Many developed nations are undergoing a shift towards low-carbon energy sources driven by the excessive reliance on fossil fuels and the detrimental effects of climate change. This study aims to investigate the potential for hydrogen deployment in the Greek energy market during the next few decades. In this context green hydrogen’s potential application in the Greek market is being assessed employing an integrated techno-economic model grounded in worldwide trends and localized expenses. The forthcoming years will see an analysis of both the challenges and opportunities surrounding the integration and implementation of hydrogen in new and existing processes within Greece. Many alternative ways to produce hydrogen in Greece are investigated contemplating different production paths. We evaluate how fluctuations in hydrogen oil and carbon prices affect the economics of green hydrogen adoption in oil refining as is detailed in the draft of the European Union delegated act published in May 2022. The Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) for different scenarios is calculated for the time frame up until 2050. A sensitivity analysis reveals that investment costs electricity prices electrolyzer efficiency and carbon taxes significantly influence the LCOH ultimately impacting the economic competitiveness of hydrogen production. These findings underscore the importance of aligning public–private partnership agendas in hydrogen production to create optimal conditions for investment attraction and development.
Portable Prototype of Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Educational Training
Jan 2023
Publication
This paper presents an experimental prototype of hydrogen fuel cells suitable for training engineering students. The presented system is designed to teach students the V-I characteristics of the fuel cells and how to record the V-I characteristics curve in the case of a single or multiple fuel cells. The prototype contains a compact electrolyzer to produce hydrogen and oxygen to the fuel cell. The fuel cell generates electricity to supply power to various types of loads. The paper also illustrates how to calculate the efficiency of fuel cells in series and parallel modes of operation. In the series mode of operation it is mathematically proven that the efficiency is higher at lower currents. Still the fuel cell operating area is required where the power is the highest. According to experimental results the efficiency in the case of series connection is approximately 25% while in parallel operation mode the efficiency is about 50%. Thus a parallel connection is recommended in the high current applications because the efficiency is higher than the one resulted from series connection. As explained later in the study plan several other experiments can be performed using this educational kit.
Techno-economic Model and Feasibility Assessment of Green Hydrogen Projects Based on Electrolysis Supplied by Photovoltaic PPAs
Nov 2022
Publication
The use of hydrogen produced from renewable energy enables the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions pursued in different international strategies. The use of power purchase agreements (PPAs) to supply renewable electricity to hydrogen production plants is an approach that can improve the feasibility of projects. This paper presents a model applicable to hydrogen projects regarding the technical and economic perspective and applies it to the Spanish case where pioneering projects are taking place via photovoltaic PPAs. The results show that PPAs are an enabling mechanism for sustaining green hydrogen projects.
Thermoacoustic Combustion Stability Analysis of a Bluff Body-Stabilized Burner Fueled by Methane–Air and Hydrogen–Air Mixtures
Apr 2023
Publication
Hydrogen can play a key role in the gradual transition towards a full decarbonization of the combustion sector e.g. in power generation. Despite the advantages related to the use of this carbon-free fuel there are still several challenging technical issues that must be addressed such as the thermoacoustic instability triggered by hydrogen. Given that burners are usually designed to work with methane or other fossil fuels it is important to investigate their thermoacoustic behavior when fueled by hydrogen. In this framework the present work aims to propose a methodology which combines Computational Fluid Dynamics CFD (3D Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)) and Finite Element Method (FEM) approaches in order to investigate the fluid dynamic and the thermoacoustic behavior introduced by hydrogen in a burner (a lab-scale bluff body stabilized burner) designed to work with methane. The case of CH4 -air mixture was used for the validation against experimental results and benchmark CFD data available in the literature. Numerical results obtained from CFD simulations namely thermofluidodynamic properties and flame characteristics (i.e. time delay and heat release rate) are used to evaluate the effects of the fuel change on the Flame Response Function to the acoustic perturbation by means of a FEM approach. As results in the H2 -air mixture case the time delay decreases and heat release rate increases with respect to the CH4 -air mixture. A study on the Rayleigh index was carried out in order to analyze the influence of H2 -air mixture on thermoacoustic instability of the burner. Finally an analysis of both frequency and growth rate (GR) on the first four modes was carried out by comparing the two mixtures. In the H2 -air case the modes are prone to become more unstable with respect to the same modes of the case fueled by CH4 -air due to the change in flame topology and variation of the heat release rate and time delay fields.
Efficient Use of Low-Emission Power Supply for Means of Transport
Apr 2023
Publication
The paper presents the possibilities of low-emission-powered vehicles based mainly on compressed hydrogen. It shows currently used forms of powering vehicles based on their genesis process of obtention and popularity. They are also compared to each other presenting the advantages and disadvantages of a given solution. The share of electricity in transport its forecasts for the future and the possibilities of combination with conventional energy sources are also described. Based on current technological capabilities hydrogen plays a crucial role as presented in the above work constituting a fundamental basis for future transport solutions.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Observatory Report: Technology and Market
Mar 2022
Publication
The information in this report covers the period January 2021 – December 2021. The technology and market module of the FCHO presents a range of statistical data as an indicator of the health of the sector and the progress in market development over time. This includes statistical information on the size of the global fuel cell market including number and capacity of fuel cell systems shipped in a calendar year. For this edition data to the end of 2021 is presented where possible alongside analysis of key sector developments. Fuel cell system shipments for each calendar year are presented both as numbers of units and total system megawatts. The data are further divided and subdivided by: Application: Total system shipments are divided into Transport Stationary and Portable applications Fuel cell type: Numbers are provided for each of the different fuel cell chemistry types Region of integration: Region where the final manufacturer – usually the system integrator – integrates the fuel cell into the final product Region of deployment: Region where the final product was shipped to for deployment The data is sourced directly from industry players as well as other relevant sources including press releases associations and other industry bodies. This year the report also includes data relating to electrolysers commissioned within Europe. Information is presented on the number of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) deployed since 2014 with detailed information on HRS in operation including pressure capacity etc. In parallel the observatory provides data on the registered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) on European roads providing an indication of the speed of adoption of hydrogen in the transport sector. This annual report is an enrichment analysis of the data available on the FCHO providing global context and insights on trends observed year-over-year. Electrolyser systems commissioned for each calendar year within Europe are presented as both the number of units and the total system power rating in megawatts (MW). The data is further divided by: Number of Electrolyser Units Commissioned: The number of units brought online each year in Europe from 2000 until 2021. Application: Total systems commissioned are divided in Transport Fuel Industry Feedstock Steel Making Industrial Heat Power Generation Export Grid Injection and Sector Coupling. Electrolyser Type: Number for each of the different electrolyser types commissioned are provided. Region of deployment: Region where the electrolyser was commissioned. All sections in the Technology & Market module are updated following an annual data collection and validation cycle and the annual report is published the following Spring.
A Critical Review of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Systems for Automotive Applications: Components, Materials, and Comparative Assessment
Mar 2023
Publication
The development of innovative technologies based on employing green energy carriers such as hydrogen is becoming high in demand especially in the automotive sector as a result of the challenges associated with sustainable mobility. In the present review a detailed overview of the entire hydrogen supply chain is proposed spanning from its production to storage and final use in cars. Notably the main focus is on Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) as the fuel-cell type most typically used in fuel cell electric vehicles. The analysis also includes a cost assessment of the various systems involved; specifically the materials commonly employed to manufacture fuel cells stacks and hydrogen storage systems are considered emphasizing the strengths and weaknesses of the selected strategies together with assessing the solutions to current problems. Moreover as a sought-after parallelism a comparison is also proposed and discussed between traditional diesel or gasoline cars battery-powered electric cars and fuel cell electric cars thus highlighting the advantages and main drawbacks of the propulsion systems currently available on the market.
Public Facing Safety and Education for Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure
Sep 2023
Publication
Building safe and convenient fuelling stations is key to deploying the arrival of commercial/public-use fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). As the most public-facing hydrogen applications second only to the FCEVs hydrogen stations are an efficient tool to educate the public about hydrogen safety and normalize its use to fill up our vehicles. However as an emerging technology it is the industry’s responsibility to ensure that fuelling infrastructures are designed and maintained in accordance with established safety standards and thus that the fuelling process is inherently safe for all users. On the other end it is essential that consumers have all the necessary information at reach to help them feel safe while fuelling their zero-emission vehicles.<br/>This paper will provide a snapshot of the safety systems used to help protect members of the public using hydrogen fueling stations as well as the information used to educate people using this equipment. This will cover the different processes involved in hydrogen fueling stations the dangers that are present to customers and members of the public at these sites and the engineering design choices and equipment used to mitigate these dangers or prevent them from happening. Finally this paper will discuss the crucial role of understanding the dangers of hydrogen at a public level and showing the importance of educating the public about hydrogen infrastructure so that people will feel comfortable using it in their everyday lives.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 9: Nuclear Hydrogen
Jan 2023
Publication
In this episode of the podcast Debra Jones Chemistry Knowledge Transfer Manager and Ray Chegwin Nuclear Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN talk about nuclear uses for hydrogen with special guest Allan Simpson Technical Lead at the National Nuclear Laboratory.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The European Hydrogen Policy Landscape
Apr 2024
Publication
This report aims to summarise the status of the European hydrogen policies and standards landscape. It is based on the information available at the European Hydrogen Observatory (EHO) platform the leading source of data and information on hydrogen in Europe (EU27 EFTA and the UK) providing an overview of the European and national policies legislations strategies and codes and standards which impact the deployment of hydrogen technologies and infrastructures. The EHO database covers a total of 29 EU policies and legislations that directly or indirectly affect the development and deployment of hydrogen technologies. To achieve its net zero ambitions the EU started with cross-cutting strategies such as the EU Green Deal and the EU Hydrogen Strategy setting forward roadmaps and targets that are to be achieved in the near future. As a next step the EU has developed legislations such as those bundled in the Fit for 55 package to meet the targets they have put forward. The implemented legislations including funding vehicles and initiatives have an impact on the whole value chain of hydrogen including production transport storage and distribution and end-uses. At national level as of July 2023 63% of the European countries have successfully published their national strategies in the hydrogen sector while 6% of the countries are currently in the draft stage. Several European countries have strategically incorporated quantitative indicators within their national strategies outlining their targets and estimates across the hydrogen value chain. This deliberate approach reflects a commitment to providing clear and measurable goals within their hydrogen strategies. A target often used in the national strategies is on electrolyser capacity as an effort to enhance the domestic renewable hydrogen production. Germany took the lead with an ambitious goal of achieving 10 GW by 2030 followed by France (6.5 GW) and Denmark (4 - 6 GW). Other targets that some of the countries use in their strategies are on the number of hydrogen refuelling stations fuel cell electric vehicles and total (renewable) hydrogen demand. A few countries also have targets on renewable hydrogen uptake in industry and hydrogen injection limit in the transmission grid. To monitor the policies and legislation that are adopted on a national level across the hydrogen value chain a survey was launched with national experts which was validated by Hydrogen Europe. In total 28 European countries have participated to the survey. On production the survey revealed that 61% of country specialists report that their country provides support for capital expenditure (CAPEX) in the development of renewable or low-carbon hydrogen production plants. Moreover 7 countries also provide support for operational expenditure (OPEX). Furthermore 8 countries have instituted official 6 permitting guidelines for hydrogen production projects while 5 countries have enacted a legal act or established an agency serving as a single point of contact for hydrogen project developers. For transmission only two countries reported to provide support schemes for hydrogen injection. Several countries have policies in place that clearly define the hydrogen limit in their transmission grid for now and in the future ranging from 0.02% up to 15% while a few countries define within their policies the operation of hydrogen storage facilities. On end-use the majority of countries totalling 71% reported to have implemented support schemes aimed at promoting the adoption of hydrogen in the mobility sector. Purchase subsidies stand out as the predominant form of support for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) with implementation observed in 17 countries. In the context of support schemes for stationary fuel applications for heating or power generation only two countries have adopted such measures. A slightly larger group of four countries do provide support for the deployment of residential and commercial heating systems utilizing hydrogen. For hydrogen end-use in industry a total of 9 countries reported to provide support schemes with a major focus on ammonia production (8) and the chemicals industry (7). On the topic of technology manufacturing 7 countries have reported to have support schemes of which grants emerge as the mainly used method (4). Exploring the latest advancements into European codes and standards relevant to the deployment of hydrogen technologies and infrastructures a total of 11 standards have been revised and developed between January 2022 and September 2023. This includes standards covering the following areas: 6 for fuel cell technologies 2 for gas cylinders 2 for road vehicles and 1 for hydrogen refuelling. Moreover 5 standards were published since September 2023 which will be added to the EHO database in its next update. This includes ISO/TS 19870:2023 which sets a methodology for determining the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production conditioning and transport of hydrogen to consumption gate. This landmark standard which was unveiled at COP28 aims to act as a foundation for harmonization safety interoperability and sustainability across the hydrogen value chain.
Study on Hydrogen in Ports and Industrial Coastal Areas - Report 1
Jan 2023
Publication
The study feeds into the work of the Global Hydrogen Ports Coalition launched at the latest Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM12). This important international initiative brings together ports from around the world to work together on hydrogen technologies. The planned study will be a comprehensive assessment of the hydrogen demand in ports and industrial coastal areas enabling the creation of a 'European Hydrogen Ports Roadmap'. It will also feature clear economic forecasts based on a variety of business models for the transition to renewable hydrogen in ports while presenting new case studies and project concepts. “The objective is to provide new directions for research and innovation guidance for regulation codes and standards and proposals on policy and regulation. The forthcoming study will also help create impetus for stakeholders to come together and take a long term perspective on the hydrogen transition in ports. Finally the study will be a centralized resource It will form a Europe wide hydrogen ports ' when combined with roadmaps and other materials created by individual ports.
Hydrogen Production Using Advanced Reactors by Steam Methane Reforming: A Review
Apr 2023
Publication
The present review focuses on the current progress on harnessing the potential of hydrogen production by Methane Steam Reforming (MSR). First based on the prominent literature in last few years the overall research efforts of hydrogen production using different feed stocks like ethanol ammonia glycerol methanol and methane is presented. The presented data is based on reactor type reactor operating conditions catalyst used and yield of hydrogen to provide a general overview. Then the most widely used process [steam methane reforming (SMR)/ methane steam reforming (MSR)] are discussed. Major advanced reactors the membrane reactors Sorption Enhanced methane steam reforming reactors and micro-reactors are evaluated. The evaluation has been done based on parameters like residence time surface area scale-up coke formation conversion space velocity and yield of hydrogen. The kinetic models available in recently published literature for each of these reactors have been presented with the rate constants and other parameters. The mechanism of coke formation and the rate expressions for the same have also been presented. While membrane reactors and sorption enhanced reactors have lot of advantages in terms of process intensification scale-up to industrial scale is still a challenge due to factors like membrane stability and fouling (in membrane reactors) decrease in yield with increasing WHSV (in case of Sorption Enhanced Reactors). Micro-reactors pose a higher potential in terms of higher yield and very low residence time in seconds though the volumes might be substantially lower than present industrial scale conventional reactors.
Spatiotemporal Analysis of Hydrogen Requirement to Minimize Seasonal Variability in Future Solar and Wind Energy in South Korea
Nov 2022
Publication
Renewable energy supply is essential for carbon neutrality; however technologies aiming to optimally utilize renewable energy sources remain insufficient. Seasonal variability in renewable energy is a key issue which many studies have attempted to overcome through operating systems and energy storage. Currently hydrogen is the only technology that can solve this seasonal storage problem. In this study the amount of hydrogen required to circumvent the seasonal variability in renewable energy supply in Korea was quantified. Spatiotemporal analysis was conducted using renewable energy resource maps and power loads. It was predicted that 50% of the total power demand in the future will be met using solar and wind power and a scenario was established based on the solar-to-wind ratio. It was found that the required hydrogen production differed by approximately four-times depending on the scenarios highlighting the importance of supplying renewable energy at an appropriate ratio. Spatially wind power was observed to be unsuitable for the physical transport of hydrogen because it has a high potential at mountain peaks and islands. The results of this study are expected to aid future hydrogen research and solve renewable energy variability problems.
Techno-economic Analysis of Developing an Underground Hydrogen Storage Facility in Depleted Gas Field: A Dutch Case Study
Apr 2023
Publication
Underground hydrogen storage will be an essential part of the future hydrogen infrastructure to provide flexibility and security of supply. Storage in porous reservoirs should complement storage in salt caverns to be able to meet the projected high levels of required storage capacities. To assess its techno-economic feasibility a case study of hydrogen storage in a depleted gas field in the Netherlands is developed. Subsurface modelling is performed and various surface facility design concepts are investigated to calculate the levelized cost of hydrogen storage (LCOHS). Our base case with hydrogen as cushion gas results in an LCOHS of 0.79 EUR/kg (range of 0.58–1.04 EUR/kg). Increasing the number of full-cycle equivalents from 1 to 6 lowers the storage cost to 0.25 EUR/kg. The investment cost of the cushion gas represents 76% of the total cost. With nitrogen as cushion gas LCOHS is reduced to 0.49 EUR/kg (range of 0.42–0.56 EUR/kg).
Techno-economic Assessment of Green Ammonia Production with Different Wind and Solar Potentials
Nov 2022
Publication
This paper focuses on developing a fast-solving open-source model for dynamic power-to-X plant techno-economic analysis and analysing the method bias that occurs when using other state-of-the-art power-to-X cost calculation methods. The model is a least-cost optimisation of investments and operation-costs taking as input techno-economic data varying power profiles and hourly grid prices. The fuel analysed is ammonia synthesised from electrolytic hydrogen produced with electricity from photovoltaics wind turbines or the grid. Various weather profiles and electrolyser technologies are compared. The calculated costs are compared with those derived using methods and assumptions prevailing in most literature. Optimisation results show that a semi-islanded set-up is the cheapest option and can reduce the costs up to 23% compared to off-grid systems but leads to e-fuels GHG emissions similar to fossil fuels with today’s electricity blend. For off-grid systems estimating costs using solar or wind levelized cost of electricity and capacity factors to derive operating hours leads to costs overestimation up to 30%. The cheapest off-grid configuration reaches production costs of 842 e/t3 . For comparison the "grey" ammonia price was 250 e/t3 in January 2021 and 1500 e/t3 in April 2022 (Western Europe). The optimal power mix is found to always include photovoltaic with 1-axis tracking and sometimes different types of onshore wind turbines at the same site. For systems fully grid connected approximating a highly fluctuating electricity price by a yearly average and assuming a constant operation leads to a small cost.
Hydrogen Micro-Systems: Households’ Preferences and Economic Futility
Mar 2024
Publication
This study examines the potential market for residential hydrogen systems in light of the trends towards digitalisation and environmental awareness. Based on a survey of 350 participants the results indicate that although energy experts are sceptical about the benefits of residential hydrogen systems due to their high costs households are highly interested in this technology. The sample shows a willingness to invest in hydrogen applications with some households willing to pay an average of 24% more. An economic assessment compared the cost of a residential hydrogen system with conventional domestic energy systems revealing significant additional costs for potential buyers interested in hydrogen applications.
2021 Hydrogen Supply and Demand
Sep 2021
Publication
Purpose: The purpose of the hydrogen supply and demand data stream is to track changes in the structure of hydrogen supply capacity and demand in Europe. This report is mainly focused on presenting the current landscape that will allow for future year-on-year comparisons to assess the progress Europe is making with regards to deployment of clean hydrogen production capacity as well as development of demand for clean hydrogen from emerging new hydrogen applications in industry or mobility sectors. Scope: The following report contains data about hydrogen production capacity and consumption in EU countries together with Switzerland Norway Iceland and the United Kingdom. Hydrogen production capacity is presented by country and by production technology whereas the hydrogen consumption data is presented by country and by end-use sector. The analysis undertaken for this report was completed using data reflecting end of 2019. Key Findings: The current hydrogen market (on both the demand and supply side) is dominated by ammonia and refining industries with three countries (DE NL PL) responsible for almost half of hydrogen consumption. Hydrogen is overwhelmingly produced by reforming of fossil fuels (mostly natural gas). Clean hydrogen production capacities are currently insignificant with hydrogen produced from natural gas coupled with carbon capture at 0.5% and hydrogen produced from water electrolysis at 0.14% of total production capacity.
Potential of Producing Green Hydrogen in Jordan
Nov 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen is becoming an increasingly important energy supply source worldwide. The great potential for the use of hydrogen as a sustainable energy source makes it an attractive energy carrier. In this paper we discuss the potential of producing green hydrogen in Jordan. Aqaba located in the south of Jordan was selected to study the potential for producing green hydrogen due to its proximity to a water source (i.e. the Red Sea). Two models were created for two electrolyzer types using MATLAB. The investigated electrolyzers were alkaline water (ALK) and polymeric electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. The first model was used to compare the required capacity of the PV solar system using ALK and PEM from 2022 to 2025 depending on the learning curves for the development of these technologies. In addition this model was used to predict the total investment costs for the investigated electrolyzers. Then a techno-economic model was constructed to predict the feasibility of using this technology by comparing the use of a PV system and grid electricity as sources for the production of hydrogen. The net present value (NPV) and levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) were used as indicators for both models. The environmental effect according to the reduction of CO2 emissions was also taken into account. The annual production of hydrogen was 70.956 million kg. The rate of hydrogen production was 19.3 kg/s and 1783 kg/s for ALK and PEM electrolyzers respectively. The LCOH was 4.42 USD/kg and 3.13 USD/kg when applying electricity from the grid and generated by the PV system respectively. The payback period to cover the capital cost of the PV system was 11 years of the project life with a NPV of USD 441.95 million. Moreover CO2 emissions can be reduced by 3042 tons/year by using the PV as a generation source instead of fossil fuels to generate electricity. The annual savings with respect to the reduction of CO2 emissions was USD 120135.
Market Uptake and Impact of Key Green Aviation Technologies
Jan 2023
Publication
Steer was appointed by the Directorate-General of Research and Innovation (DG RTD) to undertake an overview of key green aviation technologies and conditions for their market uptake. Steer is being supported in delivery by the Institute of Air Transport and Airport Research of the German Aerospace Centre DLR. The study was undertaken in the context of the Clean Aviation Partnership’s Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) for the period 2030-2050. The objective of the project is to identify the prerequisites for the market entry of climate-neutral aviation technologies as well as the flanking measures required for this to be successful. The scope of the study is hydrogen and electrically powered aircraft in the regional and short/medium range categories taking a holistic view on the technological development and keeping the economic context in mind. The outcome of the study will serve as guidance for the Commission and other actors with regard to further policy or industry initiatives such as in the context of Horizon Europe or the Alliance Zero Emission Aviation.
Life Cycle Assessment of Electric Vehicles and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Using the GREET Model—A Comparative Study
Apr 2021
Publication
Facing global warming and recent bans on the use of diesel in vehicles there is a growing need to develop vehicles powered by renewable energy sources to mitigate greenhouse gas and pollutant emissions. Among the various forms of non-fossil energy for vehicles hydrogen fuel is emerging as a promising way to combat global warming. To date most studies on vehicle carbon emissions have focused on diesel and electric vehicles (EVs). Emission assessment methodologies are usually developed for fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) which are non-durable household goods such as packaged foods beverages and toiletries instead of vehicle products. There is an increase in the number of articles addressing the product carbon footprint (PCF) of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the recent years while relatively little research focuses on both vehicle PCF and fuel cycle. Zero-emission vehicles initiative has also brought the importance of investigating the emission throughout the fuel cycle of hydrogen fuel cell and its environmental impact. To address these gaps this study uses the life-cycle assessment (LCA) process of GREET (greenhouse gases regulated emissions and energy use in transportation) to compare the PCF of an EV (Tesla Model 3) and a hydrogen fuel cell car (Toyota MIRAI). According to the GREET results the fuel cycle contributes significantly to the PCF of both vehicles. The findings also reveal the need for greater transparency in the disclosure of relevant information on the PCF methodology adopted by vehicle manufacturers to enable comparison of their vehicles’ emissions. Future work will include examining the best practices of PCF reporting for vehicles powered by renewable energy sources as well as examining the carbon footprints of hydrogen production technologies based on different methodologies.
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Potential and Cost-effectiveness of Economy-wide Hydrogen-natural Gas Blending for Energy End Uses
Sep 2022
Publication
North American and European jurisdictions are considering repurposing natural gas infrastructure to deliver a lower carbon blend of natural gas and hydrogen; this paper evaluates the greenhouse gas reduction potential and cost-effectiveness of the repurposing. The analysis uses a bottom-up economy-wide energy-systems model of an emission-intensive jurisdiction Alberta Canada to evaluate 576 long-term scenarios from 2026 to 2050. Many scenarios were included to give the analysis broad international applicability and differ by sector hydrogen blending intensity carbon policy and hydrogen infrastructure development. Twelve hydrogen production technologies are compared in a long-term greenhouse gas and cost analysis including advanced technologies. Autothermal reforming with carbon capture provides both lower-carbon and lower-cost hydrogen compared to most other technologies in most futures even with high fugitive natural gas production emissions. Using hydrogen-natural gas blends for end-use energy applications eliminates 1–2% of economy-wide GHG emissions and marginal GHG abatement costs become negative at carbon prices over $300/tonne. The findings are useful for stakeholders expanding the international low-carbon hydrogen economy and governments engaged in formulating decarbonization policies and are considering hydrogen as an option.
Investment Estimation in the Energy and Power Sector towards Carbon Neutrality Target: A Case Study of China
Mar 2023
Publication
The transition towards low-carbon energy and power has been extensively studied by research institutions and scholars. However the investment demand during the transition process has received insufficient attention. To address this gap an energy investment estimation method is proposed in this paper which takes the unit construction costs and potential development of major technology in the energy and power sector as input. The proposed estimation method can comprehensively assess the investment demand for various energy sources in different years including coal oil natural gas biomass power and hydrogen energy. Specifically we applied this method to estimate the investment demand of China’s energy and power sector from 2020 to 2060 at five year intervals. The results indicate that China’s cumulative energy investment demand over this period is approximately 127 trillion CNY with the power sector accounting for the largest proportion at 92.35% or approximately 117 trillion CNY. The calculated cumulative investment demand is consistent with the findings of several influential research institutions providing validation for the proposed method.
Numerical Predictions of a Swirl Combustor Using Complex Chemistry Fueled with Ammonia/Hydrogen Blends
Jan 2020
Publication
Ammonia a chemical that contains high hydrogen quantities has been presented as a candidate for the production of clean power generation and aerospace propulsion. Although ammonia can deliver more hydrogen per unit volume than liquid hydrogen itself the use of ammonia in combustion systems comes with the detrimental production of nitrogen oxides which are emissions that have up to 300 times the greenhouse potential of carbon dioxide. This factor combined with the lower energy density of ammonia makes new studies crucial to enable the use of the molecule through methods that reduce emissions whilst ensuring that enough power is produced to support high-energy intensive applications. Thus this paper presents a numerical study based on the use of novel reaction models employed to characterize ammonia combustion systems. The models are used to obtain Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations via Star-CCM+ with complex chemistry of a 70%–30% (mol) ammonia–hydrogen blend that is currently under investigations elsewhere. A fixed equivalence ratio (1.2) medium swirl (0.8) and confined conditions are employed to determine the flame and species propagation at various operating atmospheres and temperature inlet values. The study is then expanded to high inlet temperatures high pressures and high flowrates at different confinement boundary conditions. The results denote how the production of NOx emissions remains stable and under 400 ppm whilst higher concentrations of both hydrogen and unreacted ammonia are found in the flue gases under high power conditions. The reduction of heat losses (thus higher temperature boundary conditions) has a crucial impact on further destruction of ammonia post-flame with a raise in hydrogen water and nitrogen through the system thus presenting an opportunity of combustion efficiency improvement of this blend by reducing heat losses. Final discussions are presented as a method to raise power whilst employing ammonia for gas turbine systems.
Advances in Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas Reforming
Jun 2021
Publication
Steam natural gas reforming is the preferred technique presently used to produce hydrogen. Proposed in 1932 the technique is very well established but still subjected to perfections. Herein first the improvements being sought in catalysts and processes are reviewed and then the advantage of replacing the energy supply from burning fuels with concentrated solar energy is discussed. It is especially this advance that may drastically reduce the economic and environmental cost of hydrogen production. Steam reforming can be easily integrated into concentrated solar with thermal storage for continuous hydrogen production.
Refuelling Infrastructure Requirements for Renewable Hydrogen Road Fuel through the Energy Transition
Nov 2022
Publication
Current commercially available options for decarbonisation of road transport are battery electric vehicles or hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. BEVs are increasingly deployed while hydrogen is in its infancy. We examine the infrastructure necessary to support hydrogen fuelling to various degrees of market penetration. Scotland makes a good exemplar of transport transition with a world leading Net-Zero ambition and proven pathways for generating ample renewable energy. We identified essential elements of the new transport systems and the associated capital expenditure. We developed nine scenarios based on the pace of change and the ultimate market share of hydrogen and constructed a model to analyse their infrastructure requirements. This is a multi-period model incorporating Monte Carlo and Markov Chain elements. A “no-regrets” initial action is rapid deployment of enough hydrogen infrastructure to facilitate the early years of a scenario where diesel fuel becomes replaced with hydrogen. Even in a lower demand scenario of only large and heavy goods vehicles using hydrogen the same infrastructure would be required within a further two years. Subsequent investment in infrastructure could be considered in the light of this initial development.
Ammonia as a Suitable for Fuel Cells
Aug 2014
Publication
Ammonia an important basic chemical is produced at a scale of 150 million tons per year. Half of hydrogen produced in chemical industry is used for ammonia production. Ammonia containing 17.5 wt% hydrogen is an ideal carbon-free fuel for fuel cells. Compared to hydrogen ammonia has many advantages. In this mini-review the suitability of ammonia as fuel for fuel cells the development of different types of fuel cells using ammonia as the fuel and the potential applications of ammonia fuel cells are briefly reviewed.
The Hydrogen Bike: Communicating the Production and Safety of Green Hydrogen
Mar 2021
Publication
As the international community aims to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels green hydrogen has great potential to replace methane as a clean source of fuel. A novel public engagement activity The Hydrogen Bike has been developed to demonstrate the production and use of green hydrogen from water. The aim of the activity is to educate entertain and inform young people and adults so that they have an opportunity to form an opinion about the use of hydrogen as a fuel. Using a novel two-part data collection system participants are briefly surveyed for their opinion on hydrogen before and after participating in The Hydrogen Bike activity. Through this we have found that most participants (73%) are considered to have no opinion or a neutral opinion on hydrogen before participating in The Hydrogen Bike activity. After participation 88% of those who were originally neutral or had no opinion on hydrogen self-reported a positive feeling about hydrogen. The method of data collection was quick intuitive and suitable for an audience attracted from passing footfall.
Blue Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas Reservoirs: A Review of Application and Feasibility
Feb 2023
Publication
Recently interest in developing H2 strategies with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies has surged. Considering that this paper reviews recent literature on blue H2 a potential low-carbon short-term solution during the H2 transition period. Three key aspects were the focus of this paper. First it presents the processes used for blue H2 production. Second it presents a detailed comparison between blue H2 and natural gas as fuels and energy carriers. The third aspect focuses on CO2 sequestration in depleted natural gas reservoirs an essential step for implementing blue H2. Globally ~ 75% of H2 is produced using steam methane reforming which requires CCS to obtain blue H2. Currently blue H2 needs to compete with other advancing technologies such as green H2 solar power battery storage etc. Compared to natural gas and liquefied natural gas blue H2 gas results in lower CO2 emissions since CCS is applied. However transporting liquefied and compressed blue H2 entails higher energy economic and environmental costs. CCS must be appropriately implemented to produce blue H2 successfully. Due to their established capacity to trap hydrocarbons over geologic time scales depleted natural gas reservoirs are regarded as a viable option for CCS. Such a conclusion is supported by several simulation studies and field projects in many countries. Additionally there is much field experience and knowledge on the injection and production performance of natural gas reservoirs. Therefore using the existing site infrastructure converting these formations into storage reservoirs is undemanding.
On the Technology of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) Energy Systems for Stationary Power Generation: A Review
Nov 2022
Publication
This paper presents a comprehensive overview on the current status of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) energy systems technology with a deep insight into the techno-energy performance. In recent years SOFCs have received growing attention in the scientific landscape of high efficiency energy technologies. They are fuel flexible highly efficient and environmentally sustainable. The high working temperature makes it possible to work in cogeneration and drive downstream bottomed cycles such as Brayton and Hirn/Rankine ones thus configuring the hybrid system of a SOFC/turbine with very high electric efficiency. Fuel flexibility makes SOFCs independent from pure hydrogen feeding since hydrocarbons can be fed directly to the SOFC and then converted to a hydrogen rich stream by the internal thermochemical processes. SOFC is also able to convert carbon monoxide electrochemically thus contributing to energy production together with hydrogen. SOFCs are much considered for being supplied with biofuels especially biogas and syngas so that biomass gasifiers/SOFC integrated systems contribute to the “waste to energy” chain with a significant reduction in pollution. The paper also deals with the analysis of techno-energy performance by means of ad hoc developed numerical modeling in relation to the main operating parameters. Ample prominence is given to the aspect of fueling emphasizing fuel processing with a deep discussion on the impurities and undesired phenomena that SOFCs suffer. Constituent materials geometry and design methods for the balance of plant were studied. A wide analysis was dedicated to the hybrid system of the SOFC/turbine and to the integrated system of the biomass gasifier/SOFC. Finally an overview of SOFC system manufacturing companies on SOFC research and development worldwide and on the European roadmap was made to reflect the interest in this technology which is an important signal of how communities are sensitive toward clean low carbon and efficient technologies and therefore to provide a decisive and firm impulse to the now outlined energy transition.
The Viability of Implementing Hydrogen in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Sep 2022
Publication
In recent years there has been an increased interest in hydrogen energy due to a desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by utilizing hydrogen for numerous applications. Some countries (e.g. Japan Iceland and parts of Europe) have made great strides in the advancement of hydrogen generation and utilization. However in the United States there remains significant reservation and public uncertainty on the use and integration of hydrogen into the energy ecosystem. Massachusetts similar to many other states and small countries faces technical infrastructure policy safety and acceptance challenges with regards to hydrogen production and utilization. A hydrogen economy has the potential to provide economic benefits a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and sector coupling to provide a resilient energy grid. In this paper the issues associated with integrating hydrogen into Massachusetts and other similar states or regions are studied to determine which hydrogen applications have the most potential understand the technical and integration challenges and identify how a hydrogen energy economy may be beneficial. Additionally hydrogen’s safety concerns and possible contribution to greenhouse gas emissions are also reviewed. Ultimately a set of eight recommendations is made to guide the Commonwealth’s consideration of hydrogen as a key component of its policies on carbon emissions and energy.
Prediction of Mixing Uniformity of Hydrogen Injection in Natural Gas Pipeline Based on a Deep Learning Model
Nov 2022
Publication
It is economical and efficient to use existing natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen. The fast and accurate prediction of mixing uniformity of hydrogen injection in natural gas pipelines is important for the safety of pipeline transportation and downstream end users. In this study the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was used to investigate the hydrogen injection process in a T-junction natural gas pipeline. The coefficient of variation (COV) of a hydrogen concentration on a pipeline cross section was used to quantitatively characterize the mixing uniformity of hydrogen and natural gas. To quickly and accurately predict the COV a deep neural network (DNN) model was constructed based on CFD simulation data and the main influencing factors of the COV including flow velocity hydrogen blending ratio gas temperature flow distance and pipeline diameter ratio were taken as input nodes of the DNN model. In the model training process the effects of various parameters on the prediction accuracy of the DNN model were studied and an accurate DNN architecture was constructed with an average error of 4.53% for predicting the COV. The computational efficiency of the established DNN model was also at least two orders of magnitude faster than that of the CFD simulations for predicting the COV.
The Vision of France, Germany, and the European Union on Future Hydrogen Energy Research and Innovation
Jul 2021
Publication
Hydrogen (H2) is an essential vector for freeing our societies from fossil fuels and effectively initiating the energy transition. Offering high energy density hydrogen can be used for mobile stationary or industrial applications of all sizes. This perspective on the crucial role of hydrogen is shared by a growing number of countries worldwide (e.g. China Germany Japan Republic of Korea Australia and United States) which are publishing ambitious roadmaps for the development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies supported by substantial financial efforts.
Review of Energy Portfolio Optimization in Energy Markets Considering Flexibility of Power-to-X
Mar 2023
Publication
Power-to-X is one of the most attention-grabbing topics in the energy sector. Researchers are exploring the potential of harnessing power from renewable technologies and converting it into fuels used in various industries and the transportation sector. With the current market and research emphasis on Power-to-X and the accompanying substantial investments a review of Power-to-X is becoming essential. Optimization will be a crucial aspect of managing an energy portfolio that includes Power-to-X and electrolysis systems as the electrolyzer can participate in multiple markets. Based on the current literature and published reviews none of them adequately showcase the state-of-the-art optimization algorithms for energy portfolios focusing on Power-to-X. Therefore this paper provides an in-depth review of the optimization algorithms applied to energy portfolios with a specific emphasis on Power-to-X aiming to uncover the current state-of-the-art in the field.
Innovative Technology Strategies for the Sustainable Development of Self-Produced Energy in the Colombian Industry
Mar 2023
Publication
This research studies the current state of the Colombian industrial sector which is focused on self-generation processes. The study’s objective is to search for viable technological strategies that strengthen this particular sector’s competitiveness and sustainable development. The analysis shows that internal combustion engines represent 49% of the technologies used for self-generation. The main fuel used in the sector is natural gas with a percentage of 56%. The lack of strategies for the use of residual heat and technological inefficiencies caused a loss of 36% in the energy used in the Colombian industrial sector. Thermoelectric generators are a feasible way to recover energy from exhaust gases in engines used for self-generation. Additionally they allow a 4% reduction in fuel consumption and an improvement in the engine’s energy efficiency. The use of hydrogen as fuel allows a 30% reduction in polluting emissions such as CO2 CO HC and particulate matter. Hydrogen production processes such as water electrolysis allow the participation of Colombia’s solar energy potential leading to sustainable hydrogen production efficiency (60–80%) and a lower economic cost. In general the application of thermoelectric generators and the use of hydrogen gas allow the improvement of the Colombian industrial sector’s environmental social and economic aspects due to greater competitiveness and the reduction in emissions and operating costs.
Study on the Use of Fuel Cells in Shipping
Jan 2017
Publication
Fuel Cells are a promising technology in the context of clean power sustainability and alternative fuels for shipping. Different specific developments on Fuel Cells are available today with research and pilot projects under evaluation that have revealed strong potential for further scaled up implementation. The EMSA Study on the use of Fuel Cells in Shipping has been the result of this Agency’s initiative under the agreement of the Commission and in support of EU Member States an important instrument developed in close partnership with DNV-GL.
Notwithstanding the close dependency of Fuel Cell technology and the development of hydrogen fuel solutions different solutions are today in place making use of LNG methanol and other low flashpoint fuels. EMSA participates in support of the Commission in the 2nd phase development of the IGF Code where provisions for Fuel Cells are to be included as a new part of the text.
The EMSA Study on the use of Fuel Cells in Shipping includes a technology and regulatory review identifying gaps to be further explored the selection of the most promising Fuel Cell technologies for shipping and finally a generic Safety Assessment where the selected technologies are evaluated according to Risk & Safety aspects in generic ship design applications.
Notwithstanding the close dependency of Fuel Cell technology and the development of hydrogen fuel solutions different solutions are today in place making use of LNG methanol and other low flashpoint fuels. EMSA participates in support of the Commission in the 2nd phase development of the IGF Code where provisions for Fuel Cells are to be included as a new part of the text.
The EMSA Study on the use of Fuel Cells in Shipping includes a technology and regulatory review identifying gaps to be further explored the selection of the most promising Fuel Cell technologies for shipping and finally a generic Safety Assessment where the selected technologies are evaluated according to Risk & Safety aspects in generic ship design applications.
Multi-Objective Optimization-Based Health-Conscious Predictive Energy Management Strategy for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Feb 2022
Publication
The Energy Management Strategy (EMS) in Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles (FCHEVs) is the key part to enhance optimal power distribution. Indeed the most recent works are focusing on optimizing hydrogen consumption without taking into consideration the degradation of embedded energy sources. In order to overcome this lack of knowledge this paper describes a new health-conscious EMS algorithm based on Model Predictive Control (MPC) which aims to minimize the battery degradation to extend its lifetime. In this proposed algorithm the health-conscious EMS is normalized in order to address its multi-objective optimization. Then weighting factors are assigned in the objective function to minimize the selected criteria. Compared to most EMSs based on optimization techniques this proposed approach does not require any information about the speed profile which allows it to be used for real-time control of FCHEV. The achieved simulation results show that the proposed approach reduces the economic cost up to 50% for some speed profile keeping the battery pack in a safe range and significantly reducing energy sources degradation. The proposed health-conscious EMS has been validated experimentally and its online operation ability clearly highlighted on a PEMFC delivery postal vehicle.
Research on the Primary Frequency Regulation Control Strategy of a Wind Storage Hydrogen-Generating Power Station
Nov 2022
Publication
Wind curtailment and weak inertia characteristics are two factors that shackle the permeability of wind power. An electric hydrogen production device consumes electricity to produce hydrogen under normal working conditions to solve the problem of abandoning wind. When participating in frequency regulation it serves as a load reduction method to assist the system to rebuild a power balance and improve the wind power permeability. However due to its own working characteristics an electric hydrogen production device cannot undertake the high-frequency component of the frequency regulation power command; therefore an energy storage device was selected to undertake a high-frequency power command to assist the electric hydrogen production device to complete the system frequency regulation. This paper first proposes and analyzes the architecture of a wind storage hydrogen-generating station for centralized hydrogen production with a distributed energy storage and proposes the virtual inertia and droop characteristic mechanism of the wind storage hydrogen-generating station to simulate a synchronous unit. Secondly an alkaline electrolysis cell suitable for large-scale engineering applications is selected as the research object and its mathematical model is established the matching between different energy storage devices and their cooperation in power grid frequency regulation is analyzed and a super capacitor is selected. A control strategy for the wind storage hydrogen-generating power station to participate in power grid frequency regulation with a wide time scale is then proposed. Using the first-order low-pass filter the low-frequency component of the frequency regulation power command is realized by an electric hydrogen production device load reduction and a high-frequency component is realized by the energy storage device. Finally the effectiveness and rationality of the proposed control strategy are verified by establishing the simulation model of the wind storage hydrogen-generating power station with different initial wind speed states comparing the system frequency dip values under the proposed multi-energy cooperative control strategy and a single energy device control strategy.
Performance Assessment of a Solar Powered Hydrogen Production System and its ANFIS Model
Oct 2020
Publication
Apart from many limitations the usage of hydrogen in different day-to-day applications have been increasing drastically in recent years. However numerous techniques available to produce hydrogen electrolysis of water is one of the simplest and cost-effective hydrogen production techniques. In this method water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by using external electric current. In this research a novel hydrogen production system incorporated with Photovoltaic – Thermal (PVT) solar collector is developed. The influence of different parameters like solar collector tilt angle thermal collector design and type of heat transfer fluid on the performance of PVT system and hydrogen production system are also discussed. Finally thermal efficiency electrical efficiency and hydrogen production rate have been predicted by using the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) technique. Based on this study results it can be inferred that the solar collector tilt angle plays a significant role to improve the performance of the electrical and thermal performance of PVT solar system and Hydrogen yield rate. On the other side the spiral-shaped thermal collector with water exhibited better end result than the other hydrogen production systems. The predicted results ANFIS techniques represent an excellent agreement with the experimental results. In consequence it is suggested that the developed ANFIS model can be adopted for further studies to predict the performance of the hydrogen production system.
Optimal Capacity Planning of Power to Hydrogen in Integrated Electricity–Hydrogen–Gas Energy Systems Considering Flexibility and Hydrogen Injection
Apr 2022
Publication
With increasing penetration of renewable energy it is important to source adequate system flexibility to maintain security of supply and minimize renewable generation curtailment. Power to hydrogen (P2H) plays an important role in the low-carbon renewable dominated energy systems. By blending green hydrogen produced from renewable power into the natural gas pipelines it is possible to help integrate large-scale intermittent generation and smooth the variability of renewable power output through the interconnection of the natural gas network hydrogen energy network and electric network. A two-stage stochastic mixed-integer nonlinear planning framework for P2H sizing and siting is proposed in this paper considering system flexibility requirements. The problem is then reduced to a mixed-integer second-order cone (MISOC) model through convex transformation techniques in order to reduce the computation burden. Then a distributed algorithm based on Bender’s decomposition is applied to obtain the optimal solution. A modified hybrid IEEE 33-node and Gas 20-node system is then used for simulation tests. The results showed that investment of P2H can significantly reduce the total capital and operational costs with lower renewable generation curtailment and electricity demand shedding. Numerical tests demonstrated to demonstrate the validity of the proposed MISOC model.
Evaluating Fuel Cell vs. Battery Electric Trucks: Economic Perspectives in Alignment with China’s Carbon Neutrality Target
Mar 2024
Publication
The electrification of heavy-duty trucks stands as a critical and challenging cornerstone in the low-carbon transition of the transportation sector. This paper employs the total cost of ownership (TCO) as the economic evaluation metric framed within the context of China’s ambitious goals for heavy truck electrification by 2035. A detailed TCO model is developed encompassing not only the vehicles but also their related energy replenishing infrastructures. This comprehensive approach enables a sophisticated examination of the economic feasibility for different deployment contexts of both fuel cell and battery electric heavy-duty trucks emphasizing renewable energy utilization. This study demonstrates that in the context where both fuel cell components and hydrogen energy are costly fuel cell trucks (FCTs) exhibit a significantly higher TCO compared to battery electric trucks (BETs). Specifically for a 16 ton truck with a 500 km range the TCO for the FCT is 0.034 USD/tkm representing a 122% increase over its BET counterpart. In the case of a 49 ton truck designed for a 1000 km range the TCO for the FCT is 0.024 USD/tkm marking a 36% premium compared to the BET model. The technological roadmap suggests a narrowing cost disparity between FCTs and BETs by 2035. For the aforementioned 16 ton truck model the projected TCO for the FCT is expected to be 0.016 USD/tkm which is 58% above the BET and for the 49 ton variant it is anticipated at 0.012 USD per ton-kilometer narrowing the difference to just 4.5% relative to BET. Further analysis within this study on the influences of renewable energy pricing and operational range on FCT and BET costs highlights a pivotal finding: for the 49 ton truck achieving TCO parity between FCTs and BETs is feasible when renewable energy electricity prices fall to 0.022 USD/kWh or when the operational range extends to 1890 km. This underscores the critical role of energy costs and efficiency in bridging the cost gap between FCTs and BETs.
Power Scheduling Optimization Method of Wind-Hydrogen Integrated Energy System Based on the Improved AUKF Algorithm test2
Nov 2022
Publication
With the proposal of China’s green energy strategy the research and development technologies of green energy such as wind energy and hydrogen energy are becoming more and more mature. However the phenomenon of wind abandonment and anti-peak shaving characteristics of wind turbines have a great impact on the utilization of wind energy. Therefore this study firstly builds a distributed wind-hydrogen hybrid energy system model then proposes the power dispatching optimization technology of a wind-hydrogen integrated energy system. On this basis a power allocation method based on the AUKF (adaptive unscented Kalman filter) algorithm is proposed. The experiment shows that the power allocation strategy based on the AUKF algorithm can effectively reduce the incidence of battery overcharge and overdischarge. Moreover it can effectively deal with rapid changes in wind speed. The wind hydrogen integrated energy system proposed in this study is one of the important topics of renewable clean energy technology innovation. Its grid-connected power is stable with good controllability and the DC bus is more secure and stable. Compared with previous studies the system developed in this study has effectively reduced the ratio of abandoned air and its performance is significantly better than the system with separate grid connected fans and single hydrogen energy storage. It is hoped that this research can provide some solutions for the research work on power dispatching optimization of energy systems.
Propulsion System Integration for a First-generation Hydrogen Civil Airliner?
May 2021
Publication
An unusual philosophical approach is proposed here to decarbonise larger civil aircraft that fly long ranges and consume a large fraction of civil aviation fuel. These inject an important amount of carbon emissions into the atmosphere and holistic decarbonising solutions must consider this sector. A philosophical–analytical investigation is reported here on the feasibility of an airliner family to fly over long ranges and assist in the elimination of carbon dioxide emissions from civil aviation. Backed by state-of-the-art correlations and engine performance integration analytical tools a family of large airliners is proposed based on the development and integration of the body of a very large two-deck four-engine airliner with the engines wings and flight control surfaces of a very long-range twin widebody jet. The proposal is for a derivative design and not a retrofit. This derivative design may enable a swifter entry to service. The main contribution of this study is a philosophical one: a carefully evaluated aircraft family that appears to have very good potential for first-generation hydrogen-fuelled airliners using gas turbine engines for propulsion. This family offers three variants: a 380-passenger aircraft with a range of 3300nm a 330-passenger aircraft with a range of 4800nm and a 230- passenger aircraft with a range of 5500nm. The latter range is crucially important because it permits travel from anywhere in the globe to anywhere else with only one stop. The jet engine of choice is a 450kN high-bypass turbofan.
Well-To-Wheels Analysis of Future Automotive Fuels and Powertrains in the European Context
Jun 2014
Publication
The Well-to-Tank study describes the process of producing transporting manufacturing and distributing a number of fuels suitable for road transport powertrains. It covers all steps from extracting capturing or growing the primary energy carrier to refuelling the vehicles with the finished fuel.
An On-Board Pure H2 Supply System Based on A Membrane Reactor for A Fuel Cell Vehicle: A Theoretical Study
Jul 2020
Publication
In this novel conceptual fuel cell vehicle (FCV) an on-board CH4 steam reforming (MSR) membrane reformer (MR) is considered to generate pure H2 for supplying a Fuel Cell (FC) system as an alternative to the conventional automobile engines. Two on-board tanks are forecast to store CH4 and water useful for feeding both a combustion chamber (designed to provide the heat required by the system) and a multi tubes Pd-Ag MR useful to generate pure H2 via methane steam reforming (MSR) reaction. The pure H2 stream is hence supplied to the FC. The flue gas stream coming out from the combustion chamber is used to preheat the MR feed stream by two heat exchangers and one evaporator. Then this theoretical work demonstrates by a 1-D model the feasibility of the MR based system in order to generate 5 kg/day of pure H2 required by the FC system for cruising a vehicle for around 500 km. The calculated CH4 and water consumptions were 50 and 70 kg respectively per 1 kg of pure H2. The on-board MR based FCV presents lower CO2 emission rates than a conventional gasoline-powered vehicle also resulting in a more environmentally friendly solution.
Can the Hydrogen Economy Concept be the Solution to the Future Energy Crisis?
Feb 2022
Publication
The Hydrogen Economy concept is being proposed as a means of reducing and eventually decarbonising the world’s energy use. It looks to hydrogen as being a replacement for methane (natural gas) and generally as a way of removing all fossil fuels from the energy supply. The concept however has at least four flaws as follows: (1) hydrogen has significantly different properties to methane; (2) hydrogen has properties that create significant hazards; (3) hydrogen has a very small initiation (activation) energy; and (4) liquid hydrogen cannot readily replace liquefied natural gas (LNG). Hydrogen’s hazards will prevent it from being accepted in a societal sense. To the question ‘Can the Hydrogen Economy concept be the solution to the future energy crisis?’ the answer is ‘no’. Hydrogen has and will have a role in world energy but that role will be limited to industry. For the future we need an advanced electric economy.
Hydrogen Production, Storage, Utilisation and Environmental Impacts: A Review
Oct 2021
Publication
Dihydrogen (H2) commonly named ‘hydrogen’ is increasingly recognised as a clean and reliable energy vector for decarbonisation and defossilisation by various sectors. The global hydrogen demand is projected to increase from 70 million tonnes in 2019 to 120 million tonnes by 2024. Hydrogen development should also meet the seventh goal of ‘affordable and clean energy’ of the United Nations. Here we review hydrogen production and life cycle analysis hydrogen geological storage and hydrogen utilisation. Hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis steam methane reforming methane pyrolysis and coal gasification. We compare the environmental impact of hydrogen production routes by life cycle analysis. Hydrogen is used in power systems transportation hydrocarbon and ammonia production and metallugical industries. Overall combining electrolysis-generated hydrogen with hydrogen storage in underground porous media such as geological reservoirs and salt caverns is well suited for shifting excess of-peak energy to meet dispatchable on-peak demand.
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