Applications & Pathways

An uninterrupted chain of energy supplies is the core of every activity without exception for the operations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. A robust and efficient energy supply is fundamental for the success of missions and a guarantee of soldier safety. However organizing a battlefield energy supply chain is particularly challenging because the risks and threats are particularly high. Moreover the energy supply chain is expected to be flexible according to mission needs and able to be moved quickly if necessary. In line with ongoing technological changes the growing popularity of hydrogen is undeniable and has been noticed by NATO as well. Hydrogen is characterised by a much higher energy density per unit mass than other fuels which means that hydrogen fuel can increase the range of military vehicles. Consequently hydrogen could eliminate the need for risky refuelling stops during missions as well as the number of fatalities associated with fuel delivery in combat areas. Our research shows that a promising prospect lies in the mobile technologies based on hydrogen in combination with use of the nuclear microreactors. Nuclear microreactors are small enough to be easily transported to their destinations on heavy trucks. Depending on the design nuclear microreactors can produce 1–20 MW of thermal energy that could be used directly as heat or converted to electric power or for non-electric applications such as hydrogen fuel production. The aim of the article is to identify a model of nuclear-hydrogen synergy for use in NATO operations. We identify opportunities and threats related to mobile energy generation with nuclear-hydrogen synergy in NATO operations. The research presented in this paper identifies the best method of producing hydrogen using a nuclear microreactor. A popular and environmentally “clean” solution is electrolysis due to the simplicity of the process. However this is less efficient than chemical processes based on for example the sulphur-iodine cycle. The results of the research presented in this paper show which of the methods and which cycle is the most attractive for the production of hydrogen with the use of mini-reactors. The verification criteria include: the efficiency of the process its complexity and the residues generated as a result of the process (waste)—all taking into account usage for military purposes.

On this weeks episode the team are talking all things hydrogen with Maryline Daviaud Lewett Director of Business Development for Transformative Technologies at Black & Veatch (B&V). On the show we discuss the role that Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) firms are playing in developing hydrogen and fuel cell infrastructure as well as discussing the unique aspects of developing projects in North America. As the leading EPC for hydrogen refuelling stations in North America and a wealth of experience across electric vehicle charging and hydrogen Maryline brings a uniquely well rounded perspective to the discussion and shares a wealth of insights for how the market may evolve. All this and more on the show!

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Quantron AG was created in 2019 as a high-tech spin-off of the well-known Haller GmbH & Co. KG with the vision of paving the way for e-mobility in inner-city and regional passenger and cargo transportation. Quantron AG combines innovative ability and expertise in e-vans e-trucks and e-buses with the long-standing knowledge and experience of Haller GmbH & Co. KG in the commercial vehicle sector. The company's approach to e-Mobility is defined by its commitment to leveraging the most effective zero-emission vehicle technology for the use case which means Quantron is building both hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) for its clients.

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In this fourth episode Simon Buckley and Matthew Moss from Innovate UK KTN are exploring the use of hydrogen in the global maritime industry alongside their special guest Chester Lewis Business Development Manager at Ryze Hydrogen.

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We have been talking about the difficulties of decarbonizing the maritime sector since the beginning of the Everything About Hydrogen podcast. For this episode we finally bring on the experts who are looking to make the changes in maritime and marine operations a reality for a zero-carbon shipping future. The EAH Team sits down with Tomas Tronstad Head of Shipping and Technology for the New Energy Division at Wilhelmsen Group. Founded in Norway in 1861 Wilhelmsen is now a comprehensive global maritime group providing essential products and services to the merchant fleet along with supplying crew and technical management to the largest and most complex vessels ever to sail. Committed to shaping the maritime industry the company also seeks to develop new opportunities and collaborations in renewables zero-emission shipping and marine digitalization. Tomas is helping Wilhelmsen achieve its decarbonization ambitions and we are delighted to share our conversation with him with our listerners!

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By considering the weight penalty of batteries on payload and total vehicle weight this paper shows that almost all forms of land-based transport may be served by battery electric vehicles (BEV) with acceptable cost and driving range. Only long-distance road freight is unsuitable for battery electrification. The paper models the future Indian electricity grid supplied entirely by low-carbon forms of generation to quantify the additional solar PV power required to supply energy for transport. Hydrogen produced by water electrolysis for use as a fuel for road freight provides an inter-seasonal energy store that accommodates variations in renewable energy supply. The advantages and disadvantages are considered of midday electric vehicle charging vs. overnight charging considering the temporal variations in supply of renewable energy and demand for transport services. There appears to be little to choose between these two options in terms of total system costs. The result is an energy scenario for decarbonized surface transport in India based on renewable energy that is possible realistically achievable and affordable in a time frame of year 2050.

Decarbonisation of heavy haul rail is an essential contributor to a zero-emissions future. However the transition from diesel to battery locomotives is not always practical given the unique characteristics of each haul. This paper demonstrates the limitations of state-of-the-art batteries using real-world data from multiple locomotives operating in Australian rail freight. An energy model was developed to assess each route’s required energy and potential regenerated energy. The tractive and regenerative battery energy mass and cost were determined using data from the energy model coupled with battery specifications. The feasibility of implementing lithium iron phosphate (LFP) nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) and lithium titanium oxide (LTO) chemistries was explored based on cost energy density cycle lifespan and locomotive data. LFP was identified as the most suitable current battery solution based on current chemistries. Further examination of the energy demands and associated mass/volume constraints concluded that three platforms are required for heavy haul rail decarbonisation i) a battery electric locomotive for low-energy demands which can be coupled with either ii) a battery electric tender for medium energy demands or iii) a hydrogen fuel cell electric tender for higher energy demands. A future-looking techno-economic assessment of battery and hydrogen fuel cell platforms concludes that the lowest cost solution for low-energy hauls is a battery-only system and for high-energy hauls a battery-hydrogen system.

Ammonia a chemical that contains high hydrogen quantities has been presented as a candidate for the production of clean power generation and aerospace propulsion. Although ammonia can deliver more hydrogen per unit volume than liquid hydrogen itself the use of ammonia in combustion systems comes with the detrimental production of nitrogen oxides which are emissions that have up to 300 times the greenhouse potential of carbon dioxide. This factor combined with the lower energy density of ammonia makes new studies crucial to enable the use of the molecule through methods that reduce emissions whilst ensuring that enough power is produced to support high-energy intensive applications. Thus this paper presents a numerical study based on the use of novel reaction models employed to characterize ammonia combustion systems. The models are used to obtain Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulations via Star-CCM+ with complex chemistry of a 70%–30% (mol) ammonia–hydrogen blend that is currently under investigations elsewhere. A fixed equivalence ratio (1.2) medium swirl (0.8) and confined conditions are employed to determine the flame and species propagation at various operating atmospheres and temperature inlet values. The study is then expanded to high inlet temperatures high pressures and high flowrates at different confinement boundary conditions. The results denote how the production of NOx emissions remains stable and under 400 ppm whilst higher concentrations of both hydrogen and unreacted ammonia are found in the flue gases under high power conditions. The reduction of heat losses (thus higher temperature boundary conditions) has a crucial impact on further destruction of ammonia post-flame with a raise in hydrogen water and nitrogen through the system thus presenting an opportunity of combustion efficiency improvement of this blend by reducing heat losses. Final discussions are presented as a method to raise power whilst employing ammonia for gas turbine systems.

A greenhouse containing an integrated system of photovoltaic panels a water electrolyzer fuel cells and a geothermal heat pump was set up to investigate suitable solutions for a power system based on solar energy and hydrogen feeding a self-sufficient geothermal-heated greenhouse. The electricity produced by the photovoltaic source supplies the electrolyzer; the manufactured hydrogen gas is held in a pressure tank. In these systems the electrolyzer is a crucial component; the technical challenge is to make it work regularly despite the irregularity of the solar source. The focus of this paper is to study the performance and the real energy efficiency of the electrolyzer analyzing its operational data collected under different operating conditions affected by the changeable solar radiant energy characterizing the site where the experimental plant was located. The analysis of the measured values allowed evaluation of its suitability for the agricultural requirements such as greenhouse heating. On the strength of the obtained result a new layout of the battery bank has been designed and exemplified to improve the performance of the electrolyzer. The evaluations resulting from this case study may have a genuine value therefore assisting in further studies to better understand these devices and their associated technologies.

The purpose of this paper is to assess via techno-economic and environmental metrics the production of methanol (MeOH) using H₂ and captured CO₂ as raw materials. It evaluates the potential of this type of carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) plant on (i) the net reduction of CO₂ emissions and (ii) the cost of production in comparison with the conventional synthesis process of MeOH Europe. Process flow modelling is used to estimate the operational performance and the total purchased equipment cost; the flowsheet is implemented in CHEMCAD and the obtained mass and energy flows are utilised as input to calculate the selected key performance indicators (KPIs). CO₂ -based metrics are used to assess the environmental impact. The evaluated MeOH plant produces 440 ktMeOH/yr and its configuration is the result of a heat integration process. Its specific capital cost is lower than for conventional plants. However raw materials prices i.e. H₂ and captured CO₂ do not allow such a project to be financially viable. In order to make the CCU plant financially attractive the price of MeOH should increase in a factor of almost 2 or H₂ costs should decrease almost 2.5 times or CO₂ should have a value of around 222 €/t under the assumptions of this work. The MeOH CCU-plant studied can utilise about 21.5% of the CO₂ emissions of a pulverised coal (PC) power plant that produces 550MWnet of electricity. The net CO₂ emissions savings represent 8% of the emissions of the PC plant (mainly due to the avoidance of consuming fossil fuels as in the conventional MeOH synthesis process). The results demonstrate that there is a net but small potential for CO₂ emissions reduction; assuming that such CCU plants are  constructed in Europe to meet the MeOH demand growth and the quantities that are currently imported the net CO₂ emissions reduction could be of 2.71 MtCO2/yr.