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Optimal Design and Analysis of a Hybrid Hydrogen Energy Storage System for an Island-Based Renewable Energy Community
Oct 2023
Publication
Installations of decentralised renewable energy systems (RES) are becoming increasing popular as governments introduce ambitious energy policies to curb emissions and slow surging energy costs. This work presents a novel model for optimal sizing for a decentralised renewable generation and hybrid storage system to create a renewable energy community (REC) developed in Python. The model implements photovoltaic (PV) solar and wind turbines combined with a hybrid battery and regenerative hydrogen fuel cell (RHFC). The electrical service demand was derived using real usage data from a rural island case study location. Cost remuneration was managed with an REC virtual trading layer ensuring fair distribution among actors in accordance with the European RED(III) policy. A multi-objective genetic algorithm (GA) stochastically determines the system capacities such that the inherent trade-off relationship between project cost and decarbonisation can be observed. The optimal design resulted in a levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of 0.15 EUR/kWh reducing costs by over 50% compared with typical EU grid power with a project internal rate of return (IRR) of 10.8% simple return of 9.6%/year and return on investment (ROI) of 9 years. The emissions output from grid-only use was reduced by 72% to 69 gCO2 e/kWh. Further research of lifetime economics and additional revenue streams in combination with this work could provide a useful tool for users to quickly design and prototype future decentralised REC systems.
Low Platinum Fuel Cell as Enabler for the Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle
Feb 2024
Publication
In this work the design and modeling of a fuel cell vehicle using low-loading platinum catalysts were investigated. Data from single fuel cells with low Pt-loading cathode catalysts were scaled up to fuel cell stacks and systems implemented in a vehicle and then compared to a commercial fuel cell vehicle. The low-loading Pt systems have shown lower efficiency at high loads compared to the commercial systems suggesting less stable materials. However the analysis showed that the vehicle comprising low-loading Pt catalysts achieves similar or higher efficiency compared to the commercial fuel cell vehicle when being scaled up for the same number of cells. When the systems were scaled up for the same maximum power as the commercial fuel cell vehicle all the low-loading Pt fuel cell systems showed higher efficiencies. In this case more cells are needed but still the amount of Pt is significantly reduced compared to the commercial one. The high-efficiency results can be associated with the vehicle’s power range operation that meets the region where the low-loading Pt fuel cells have high performance. The results suggested a positive direction towards the reduction of Pt in commercial fuel cell vehicles supporting a cost-competitive clean energy transition based on hydrogen.
Hydrogen and the Global Energy Transition—Path to Sustainability and Adoption across All Economic Sectors
Feb 2024
Publication
This perspective article delves into the critical role of hydrogen as a sustainable energy carrier in the context of the ongoing global energy transition. Hydrogen with its potential to decarbonize various sectors has emerged as a key player in achieving decarbonization and energy sustainability goals. This article provides an overview of the current state of hydrogen technology its production methods and its applications across diverse industries. By exploring the challenges and opportunities associated with hydrogen integration we aim to shed light on the pathways toward achieving a sustainable hydrogen economy. Additionally the article underscores the need for collaborative efforts among policymakers industries and researchers to overcome existing hurdles and unlock the full potential of hydrogen in the transition to a low-carbon future. Through a balanced analysis of the present landscape and future prospects this perspective article aims to contribute valuable insights to the discourse surrounding hydrogen’s role in the global energy transition.
Review on Techno-economics of Hydrogen Production Using Current and Emerging Processes: Status and Perspectives
Feb 2024
Publication
This review presents a broad exploration of the techno economic evaluation of different technologies utilized in the production of hydrogen from both renewable and non-renewable sources. These encompass methods ranging from extracting hydrogen from fossil fuels or biomass to employing microbial processes electrolysis of water and various thermochemical cycles. A rigorous techno-economic evaluation of hydrogen production technologies can provide a critical cost comparison for future resource allocation priorities and trajectory. This evaluation will have a great impact on future hydrogen production projects and the development of new approaches to reduce overall production costs and make it a cheaper fuel. Different methods of hydrogen production exhibit varying efficiencies and costs: fast pyrolysis can yield up to 45% hydrogen at a cost range of $1.25 to $2.20 per kilogram while gasification operating at temperatures exceeding 750°C faces challenges such as limited small-scale coal production and issues with tar formation in biomass. Steam methane reforming which constitutes 48% of hydrogen output experiences cost fluctuations depending on scale whereas auto-thermal reforming offers higher efficiency albeit at increased costs. Chemical looping shows promise in emissions reduction but encounters economic hurdles and sorptionenhanced reforming achieves over 90% hydrogen but requires CO2 storage. Renewable liquid reforming proves effective and economically viable. Additionally electrolysis methods like PEM aim for costs below $2.30 per kilogram while dark fermentation though cost-effective grapples with efficiency challenges. Overcoming technical economic barriers and managing electricity costs remains crucial for optimizing hydrogen production in a low-carbon future necessitating ongoing research and development efforts.
Research on Fast Frequency Response Control Strategy of Hydrogen Production Systems
Mar 2024
Publication
With the large-scale integration of intermittent renewable energy generation presented by wind and photovoltaic power the security and stability of power system operations have been challenged. Therefore this article proposes a control strategy of a hydrogen production system based on renewable energy power generation to enable the fast frequency response of a grid. Firstly based on the idea of virtual synchronous control a fast frequency response control transformation strategy for the grid-connected interface of hydrogen production systems for renewable energy power generation is proposed to provide active power support when the grid frequency is disturbed. Secondly based on the influence of VSG’s inertia and damping coefficient on the dynamic characteristics of the system a VSG adaptive control model based on particle swarm optimization is designed. Finally based on the Matlab/Simulink platform a grid-connected simulation model of hydrogen production systems for renewable energy power generation is established. The results show that the interface-transformed electrolytic hydrogen production device can actively respond to the frequency disturbances of the power system and participate in primary frequency control providing active support for the frequency stability of the power system under high-percentage renewable energy generation integration. Moreover the system with parameter optimization has better fast frequency response control characteristics.
On the Green Transformation of the Iron and Steel Industry: Market and Competition Aspects of Hydrogen Biomass Options
Feb 2024
Publication
The iron and steel industry is a major emitter of carbon dioxide globally. To reduce their carbon footprint the iron and steel industry pursue different decarbonization strategies including deploying bio-based materials and energy carriers for reduction carburisation and/or energy purposes along their value-chains. In this study two potential roles for biomass were analysed: (a) substituting for fossil fuels in iron-ore pellets induration and (b) carburisation of DRI (direct reduced iron) produced via fully hydrogen-based reduction. The purpose of the study was to analyse the regional demand-driven price and allocative effects of biomass assortments under different biomass demand scenarios for the Swedish iron and steel industry. Economic modelling was used in combination with spatial biomass supply assessments to predict the changes on relevant biomass markets. The results showed that the estimated demand increases for forest biomass will have significant regional price effects. Depending on scenario the biomass demand will increase up to 25 percent causing regional prices to more than doubling. In general the magnitude of the price effects was driven by the volumes and types of biomasses needed in the different scenarios with larger price effects for harvesting residues and industrial by-products compared to those of roundwood. A small price effect of roundwood means that the incentives for forest-owners to increase their harvests and thus also the availability of harvest residues are small. Flexibility in the feedstock sourcing (both regarding quality and geographic origin) will thus be important if forest biomass is to satisfy demands in iron and steel industry.
Study on the Application of a Multi-Energy Complementary Distributed Energy System Integrating Waste Heat and Surplus Electricity for Hydrogen Production
Feb 2024
Publication
To improve the recovery of waste heat and avoid the problem of abandoning wind and solar energy a multi-energy complementary distributed energy system (MECDES) is proposed integrating waste heat and surplus electricity for hydrogen storage. The system comprises a combined cooling heating and power (CCHP) system with a gas engine (GE) solar and wind power generation and miniaturized natural gas hydrogen production equipment (MNGHPE). In this novel system the GE’s waste heat is recycled as water vapor for hydrogen production in the waste heat boiler while surplus electricity from renewable sources powers the MNGHPE. A mathematical model was developed to simulate hydrogen production in three building types: offices hotels and hospitals. Simulation results demonstrate the system’s ability to store waste heat and surplus electricity as hydrogen thereby providing economic benefit energy savings and carbon reduction. Compared with traditional energy supply methods the integrated system achieves maximum energy savings and carbon emission reduction in office buildings with an annual primary energy reduction rate of 49.42–85.10% and an annual carbon emission reduction rate of 34.88–47.00%. The hydrogen production’s profit rate is approximately 70%. If the produced hydrogen is supplied to building through a hydrogen fuel cell the primary energy reduction rate is further decreased by 2.86–3.04% and the carbon emission reduction rate is further decreased by 12.67–14.26%. This research solves the problem of waste heat and surplus energy in MECDESs by the method of hydrogen storage and system integration. The economic benefits energy savings and carbon reduction effects of different building types and different energy allocation scenarios were compared as well as the profitability of hydrogen production and the factors affecting it. This has a positive technical guidance role for the practical application of MECDESs.
A Complete Assessment of the Emission Performance of an SI Engine Fueled with Methanol, Methane and Hydrogen
Feb 2024
Publication
This study explores the potentiality of low/zero carbon fuels such as methanol methane and hydrogen for motor applications to pursue the goal of energy security and environmental sustainability. An experimental investigation was performed on a spark ignition engine equipped with both a port fuel and a direct injection system. Liquid fuels were injected into the intake manifold to benefit from a homogeneous charge formation. Gaseous fuels were injected in direct mode to enhance the efficiency and prevent abnormal combustion. Tests were realized at a fixed indicated mean effective pressure and at three different engine speeds. The experimental results highlighted the reduction of CO and CO2 emissions for the alternative fuels to an extent depending on their properties. Methanol exhibited high THC and low NOx emissions compared to gasoline. Methane and even more so hydrogen allowed for a reduction in THC emissions. With regard to the impact of gaseous fuels on the NOx emissions this was strongly related to the operating conditions. A surprising result concerns the particle emissions that were affected not only by the fuel characteristics and the engine test point but also by the lubricating oil. The oil contribution was particularly evident for hydrogen fuel which showed high particle emissions although they did not contain carbon atoms.
Economic Prospects of Taxis Powered by Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Palestine
Feb 2024
Publication
Recently major problems related to fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have arisen in the transportation sector. Therefore developing transportation modes powered by alternative fuels has become one of the main targets for car manufacturers and governments around the world. This study aimed to investigate the economic prospects of using hydrogen fuel cell technology in taxi fleets in Westbank. For this purpose a model that could predict the number of taxis was developed and the expected economic implications of using hydrogen fuel cell technology in taxi fleets were determined based on the expected future fuel consumption and future fuel cost. After analysis of the results it was concluded that a slight annual increase in the number of taxis in Palestine is expected in the future due to the government restrictions on issuing new taxi permits in order to get this sector organized. Furthermore using hydrogen fuel cells in taxi fleets is expected to become more and more feasible over time due to the expected future increase in oil price and the expected significant reduction in hydrogen cost as a result of the new technologies that are expected to be used in the production and handling of hydrogen.
A Systematic Review: The Role of Emerging Carbon Capture and Conversion Rechnologies for Energy Transition to Clean Hydrogen
Feb 2024
Publication
The exploitation of fossil fuels in various sectors such as power and heat generation and the transportation sector has been the primary source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which are the main contributors to global warming. Qatar's oil and gas sector notably contributes to CO2 emissions accounting for half of the total emissions. Globally it is essential to transition into cleaner fossil fuel production to achieve carbon neutrality on a global scale. In this paper we focus on clean hydrogen considering carbon capture to make hydrogen a viable low carbon energy alternative for the transition to clean energy. This paper systematically reviews emerging technologies in carbon capture and conversion (CCC). First the road map stated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to reach carbon neutrality is discussed along with pathways to decarbonize the energy sector in Qatar. Next emerging CO2 removal technologies including physical absorption using ionic liquids chemical looping and cryogenics are explored and analyzed regarding their advancement and limitations CO2 purity scalability and prospects. The advantages limitations and efficiency of the CO2 conversion technology to value-added products are grouped into chemical (plasma catalysis electrochemical and photochemical) and biological (photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic). The paper concludes by analyzing pathways to decarbonize the energy sector in Qatar via coupling CCC technologies for low-carbon hydrogen highlighting the challenges and research gaps.
Hydrogen Gas Compression for Efficient Storage: Balancing Energy and Increasing Density
May 2024
Publication
This article analyzes the processes of compressing hydrogen in the gaseous state an aspect considered important due to its contribution to the greater diffusion of hydrogen in both the civil and industrial sectors. This article begins by providing a concise overview and comparison of diverse hydrogen-storage methodologies laying the groundwork with an in-depth analysis of hydrogen’s thermophysical properties. It scrutinizes plausible configurations for hydrogen compression aiming to strike a delicate balance between energy consumption derived from the fuel itself and the requisite number of compression stages. Notably to render hydrogen storage competitive in terms of volume pressures of at least 350 bar are deemed essential albeit at an energy cost amounting to approximately 10% of the fuel’s calorific value. Multi-stage compression emerges as a crucial strategy not solely for energy efficiency but also to curtail temperature rises with an upper limit set at 200 ◦C. This nuanced approach is underlined by the exploration of compression levels commonly cited in the literature particularly 350 bar and 700 bar. The study advocates for a three-stage compression system as a pragmatic compromise capable of achieving high-pressure solutions while keeping compression work below 10 MJ/kg a threshold indicative of sustainable energy utilization.
Fuel Cell-based Hybrid Electric Vehicles: An Integrated Review of Current Status, Key Challenges, Recommended Policies, and Future Prospects
Aug 2023
Publication
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) whose exhaust pipes emit nothing are examples of zero-emission automobiles. FCEVs should be considered an additional technology that will help battery-powered vehicles to reach the aspirational goal of zero-emissions electric mobility particularly in situations where the customers demand for longer driving ranges and where using batteries would be insufficient due to bulky battery trays and time-consuming recharging. This study stipulates a current evaluation of the status of development and challenges related to (i) research gap to promote fuel-cell based HEVs (ii) key barriers of fuel-cell based HEVs (iii) advancement of electric mobility and their power drive (iv) electrochemistry of fuel cell technology for FCEVs (v) power transformation topologies communication protocols and advanced charging methods (vi) recommendations and future prospects of fuel-cell HEVs and (vii) current research trends of EVs and FCEVs. This article discusses key challenges with fuel cell electric mobility such as low fuel cell performance cold starts problems with hydrogen storage cost-reduction safety concerns and traction systems. The operating characteristics and applications of several fuel-cell technologies are investigated for FCEVs and FCHEVs. An overview of the fuel cell is provided which serves as the primary source of energy for FCHEVs along with comparisons and its electrochemistry. The study of power transformation topologies communication protocols and enhanced charging techniques for FCHEVs has been studied analytically. Recent technology advancements and the prospects for FCHEVs are discussed in order to influence the future vehicle market and to attain the aim of zero emissions.
The ATHENA Framework: Analysis and Design of a Strategic Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure
Apr 2023
Publication
With the pressured timescale in determining effective and viable net zero solutions within the transport sector it is important to understand the extent of implementing a new refuelling infrastructure for alternative fuel such as hydrogen. The proposed ATHENA framework entails three components which encapsulates the demand data analysis an optimisation model in determining the minimal cost hydrogen refuelling infrastructure design and an agent-based model simulating the operational system. As a case study the ATHENA framework is applied to Northern England focusing on the design of a hydrogen refuelling infrastructure for heavy goods vehicles. Analysis is performed in calibrating parameters and investigating different scenarios within the optimisation and agent-based simulation models. For this case study the system optimality is limited by the feasible number of tube trailer deliveries per day which suggests an opportunity for alternative delivery methods.
A Newly Proposed Method for Hydrogen Storage in a Metal Hydride Storage Tank Intended for Maritime and Inland Shipping
Aug 2023
Publication
The utilisation of hydrogen in ships has important potential in terms of achieving the decarbonisation of waterway transport which produces approximately 3% of the world’s total emissions. However the utilisation of hydrogen drives in maritime and inland shipping is conditioned by the efficient and safe storage of hydrogen as an energy carrier on ship decks. Regardless of the type the constructional design and the purpose of the aforesaid vessels the preferred method for hydrogen storage on ships is currently high-pressure storage with an operating pressure of the fuel storage tanks amounting to tens of MPa. Alternative methods for hydrogen storage include storing the hydrogen in its liquid form or in hydrides as adsorbed hydrogen and reformed fuels. In the present article a method for hydrogen storage in metal hydrides is discussed particularly in a certified low-pressure metal hydride storage tank—the MNTZV-159. The article also analyses the 2D heat conduction in a transversal cross-section of the MNTZV-159 storage tank for the purpose of creating a final design of the shape of a heat exchanger (intensifier) that will help to shorten the total time of hydrogen absorption into the alloy i.e. the filling process. Based on the performed 3D calculations for heat conduction the optimisation and implementation of the intensifier into the internal volume of a metal hydride alloy will increase the performance efficiency of the shell heat exchanger of the MNTZV-159 storage tank. The optimised design increased the cooling power by 46.1% which shortened the refuelling time by 41% to 2351 s. During that time the cooling system which comprised the newly designed internal heat transfer intensifier was capable of eliminating the total heat from the surface of the storage tank thus preventing a pressure increase above the allowable value of 30 bar.
Design of Gravimetric Primary Standards for Field-testing of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations
Apr 2020
Publication
The Federal Institute of Metrology METAS developed a Hydrogen Field Test Standard (HFTS) that can be used for field verification and calibration of hydrogen refuelling stations. The testing method is based on the gravimetric principle. The experimental design of the HFTS as well as the description of the method are presented here.
Risk Analysis of Fire and Explosion of Hydrogen-Gasoline Hybrid Refueling Station Based on Accident Risk Assessment Method for Industrial System
Apr 2023
Publication
Hydrogen–gasoline hybrid refueling stations can minimize construction and management costs and save land resources and are gradually becoming one of the primary modes for hydrogen refueling stations. However catastrophic consequences may be caused as both hydrogen and gasoline are flammable and explosive. It is crucial to perform an effective risk assessment to prevent fire and explosion accidents at hybrid refueling stations. This study conducted a risk assessment of the refueling area of a hydrogen–gasoline hybrid refueling station based on the improved Accident Risk Assessment Method for Industrial Systems (ARAMIS). An improved probabilistic failure model was used to make ARAMIS more applicable to hydrogen infrastructure. Additionally the accident consequences i.e. jet fires and explosions were simulated using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods replacing the traditional empirical model. The results showed that the risk levels at the station house and the road near the refueling area were 5.80 × 10−5 and 3.37 × 10−4 respectively and both were within the acceptable range. Furthermore the hydrogen dispenser leaked and caused a jet fire and the flame ignited the exposed gasoline causing a secondary accident considered the most hazardous accident scenario. A case study was conducted to demonstrate the practicability of the methodology. This method is believed to provide trustworthy decisions for establishing safe distances from dispensers and optimizing the arrangement of the refueling area.
On the Design and Optimization of Distributed Energy Resources for Sustainable Grid-integrated Microgrid in Ethiopia
Apr 2023
Publication
This paper presents a study that focuses on alleviating the impacts of grid outages in Ethiopia. To deal with grid outages most industrial customers utilize backup diesel generators (DG) which are environmentally unfriendly and economically not viable. Grid integration of hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) might be a possible solution to enhance grid reliability and reduce environmental and economic impacts of utilizing DG. In this study an optimization of grid integrated HRES is carried out for different dispatch and control strategies. The optimal power supply option is determined by performing comparative analysis of the different configurations of grid integrated HRES. The result of the study shows that grid integrated HRES consisting of photovoltaic and wind turbine as renewable energy sources and battery and hydrogen as hybrid energy storage systems is found to be the optimal system to supply the load demand. From the hydrogen produced on-site the FC generator and FCEVs consume 143 620 kg/yr of hydrogen which is equivalent to 394 955 kg/yr gasoline fuel consumption. This corresponds to saving 1 184 865 kg/yr of CO2 emissions and 605 703 $/yr revenue. Besides this system yields 547 035.4 $/yr revenue by injecting excess electricity to the grid. The study clearly shows the economic and environmental viability of this new technology for implementation.
Recent Advances in Sustainable and Safe Marine Engine Operation with Alternative Fuels
Nov 2022
Publication
Pursuing net-zero emission operations in the shipping industry are quintessential for this sector to mitigate the environmental impact caused by hydrocarbon fuel combustion. Significant contributions to this are expected from the substitution of conventional marine fuels by alternative emission-free fuels with lower emission footprints. This study aims to conduct a comprehensive literature review for delineating the main characteristics of the considered alternative fuels specifically focusing on hydrogen methanol and ammonia which have recently attracted attention from both industry and academia. This study comparatively assesses the potential of using these fuels in marine engines and their subsequent performance characteristics as well as the associated environmental benefits. In addition the required storage conditions space as well as the associated costs are reviewed. Special attention is given to the safety characteristics and requirements for each alternative fuel. The results of this study demonstrate that the environmental benefits gained from alternative fuel use are pronounced only when renewable energy is considerably exploited for their production whereas the feasibility of each fuel depends on the vessel type used and pertinent storage constraints. Hydrogen ammonia and methanol are considered best-fit solutions for small scale shipping requiring minimal on-board storage. In addition the need for comparative assessments between diesel and alternative fuels is highlighted and sheds light on marine engines’ operational characteristics. Moreover using combinations of alternative and diesel fuels is identified as a direction towards decarbonisation of the maritime sector; intensifying the need for optimisation studies on marine engine design and operation. This study concludes with recommendations for future research directions thus contributing to fuel research concepts that can facilitate the shipboard use of alternative fuels.
Research Progress and Prospects on Hydrogen Damage in Welds of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Pipelines
Nov 2023
Publication
Hydrogen energy represents a crucial pathway towards achieving carbon neutrality and is a pivotal facet of future strategic emerging industries. The safe and efficient transportation of hydrogen is a key link in the entire chain development of the hydrogen energy industry’s “production storage and transportation”. Mixing hydrogen into natural gas pipelines for transportation is the potential best way to achieve large-scale long-distance safe and efficient hydrogen transportation. Welds are identified as the vulnerable points in natural gas pipelines and compatibility between hydrogen-doped natural gas and existing pipeline welds is a critical technical challenge that affects the global-scale transportation of hydrogen energy. Therefore this article systematically discusses the construction and weld characteristics of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines the research status of hydrogen damage mechanism and mechanical property strengthening methods of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds and points out the future development direction of hydrogen damage mechanism research in hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds. The research results show that: 1 Currently there is a need for comprehensive research on the degradation of mechanical properties in welds made from typical pipe materials on a global scale. It is imperative to systematically elucidate the mechanism of mechanical property degradation due to conventional and hydrogeninduced damage in welds of high-pressure hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines worldwide. 2 The deterioration of mechanical properties in welds of hydrogen-doped natural gas pipelines is influenced by various components including hydrogen carbon dioxide and nitrogen. It is necessary to reveal the mechanism of mechanical property deterioration of pipeline welds under the joint participation of multiple damage mechanisms under multi-component gas conditions. 3 Establishing a fundamental database of mechanical properties for typical pipeline steel materials under hydrogen-doped natural gas conditions globally is imperative to form a method for strengthening the mechanical properties of typical high-pressure hydrogen-doped natural gas pipeline welds. 4 It is essential to promptly develop relevant standards for hydrogen blending transportation welding technology as well as weld evaluation testing and repair procedures for natural gas pipelines.
Assessing the Implications of Hydrogen Blending on the European Energy System towards 2050
Dec 2023
Publication
With the aim of reducing carbon emissions and seeking independence from Russian gas in the wake of the conflict in Ukraine the use of hydrogen in the European Union is expected to rise in the future. In this regard hydrogen transport via pipeline will become increasingly crucial either through the utilization of existing natural gas infrastructure or the construction of new dedicated hydrogen pipelines. This study investigates the effects of hydrogen blending in existing pipelines on the European energy system by the year 2050 by introducing hydrogen blending sensitivities to the Global Energy System Model (GENeSYS-MOD). Results indicate that hydrogen demand in Europe is inelastic and limited by its high costs and specific use cases with hydrogen production increasing by 0.17% for 100%-blending allowed compared to no blending allowed. The availability of hydrogen blending has been found to impact regional hydrogen production and trade with countries that can utilize existing natural gas pipelines such as Norway experiencing an increase in hydrogen and synthetic gas exports from 44.0 TWh up to 105.9 TWh in 2050 as the proportion of blending increases. Although the influence of blending on the overall production and consumption of hydrogen in Europe is minimal the impacts on the location of production and dependence on imports must be thoroughly evaluated in future planning efforts.
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