Poland

National Implementation Plans (NIP) in regard hydrogenation motor transport are in place in European Union (EU) countries e.g.Germany France or Belgium Denmark Netherlands. Motor transport hydrogenization plans exist in the Japan and USA. In Poland the methodology deployment Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRS) developed in Motor Transport Institute is of multi-stage character are as follows: Stage I: Method allowing to identify regions in which HRS should be located. Stage II: Method allowing to identify urban centres in which should be located the said stations. Stage III: Method for determining the area of the station location. The presentation of the aforesaid NIPS and based on that and the mentioned methodology the conditions for hydrogenization of motor transport in Poland is the purpose of this article which constitutes its novelty. The scope of the article concerns the hydrogenization of motor transport in the abovementioned countries. With the above criteria the order the construction in Poland of a HRS in the order of their creation along the TEN-T corridors is as follows: 1 - Poznan 2 - Warsaw 3 - Bialystok 4 - Szczecin 5 - the Lodz region 6 - the Tri-City region 7 - Wrocław 8 - the Katowice region 9 – Krakow. The concluding discussion sets out the status of deployment HRS and FCEVs in the analysed countries.

This paper reviews the progress in applying the plasma-driven solution electrolysis (PDSE) which is also referred to as the contact glow-discharge electrolysis (CGDE) or plasma electrolysis for hydrogen production. The physicochemical processes responsible for the formation of PDSE and effects occurring at the discharge electrode in the cathodic and anodic regimes of the PDSE operation are described. The influence of the PDSE process parameters especially the discharge polarity magnitude of the applied voltage type and concentration of the typical electrolytic solutions (K2CO3 Na2CO3 KOH NaOH H2SO4 ) presence of organic additives (CH3OH C2H5OH CH3COOH) temperature of the electrolytic solution the active length and immersion depth of the discharge electrode into the electrolytic solution on the energy efficiency (%) energy yield (g(H2 )/kWh) and hydrogen production rate (g(H2 )/h) is presented and discussed. This analysis showed that in the cathodic regime of PDSE the hydrogen production rate is 33.3 times higher than that in the anodic regime of PDSE whereas the Faradaic and energy efficiencies are 11 and 12.5 times greater respectively than that in the anodic one. It also revealed the energy yield of hydrogen production in the cathodic regime of PDSE in the methanol–water mixture as the electrolytic solution is 3.9 times greater compared to that of the alkaline electrolysis 4.1 times greater compared to the polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis 2.8 times greater compared to the solid oxide electrolysis 1.75 times greater than that obtained in the microwave (2.45 GHz) plasma and 5.8% greater compared to natural gas steam reforming.

Magnesium hydride and selected magnesium-based ternary hydride (Mg2FeH6 Mg2NiH4 and Mg2CoH5) syntheses and modification methods as well as the properties of the obtained materials which are modified mostly by mechanical synthesis or milling are reviewed in this work. The roles of selected additives (oxides halides and intermetallics) nanostructurization polymorphic transformations and cyclic stability are described. Despite the many years of investigations related to these hydrides and the significant number of different additives used there are still many unknown factors that affect their hydrogen storage properties reaction yield and stability. The described compounds seem to be extremely interesting from a theoretical point of view. However their practical application still remains debatable.

An uninterrupted chain of energy supplies is the core of every activity without exception for the operations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. A robust and efficient energy supply is fundamental for the success of missions and a guarantee of soldier safety. However organizing a battlefield energy supply chain is particularly challenging because the risks and threats are particularly high. Moreover the energy supply chain is expected to be flexible according to mission needs and able to be moved quickly if necessary. In line with ongoing technological changes the growing popularity of hydrogen is undeniable and has been noticed by NATO as well. Hydrogen is characterised by a much higher energy density per unit mass than other fuels which means that hydrogen fuel can increase the range of military vehicles. Consequently hydrogen could eliminate the need for risky refuelling stops during missions as well as the number of fatalities associated with fuel delivery in combat areas. Our research shows that a promising prospect lies in the mobile technologies based on hydrogen in combination with use of the nuclear microreactors. Nuclear microreactors are small enough to be easily transported to their destinations on heavy trucks. Depending on the design nuclear microreactors can produce 1–20 MW of thermal energy that could be used directly as heat or converted to electric power or for non-electric applications such as hydrogen fuel production. The aim of the article is to identify a model of nuclear-hydrogen synergy for use in NATO operations. We identify opportunities and threats related to mobile energy generation with nuclear-hydrogen synergy in NATO operations. The research presented in this paper identifies the best method of producing hydrogen using a nuclear microreactor. A popular and environmentally “clean” solution is electrolysis due to the simplicity of the process. However this is less efficient than chemical processes based on for example the sulphur-iodine cycle. The results of the research presented in this paper show which of the methods and which cycle is the most attractive for the production of hydrogen with the use of mini-reactors. The verification criteria include: the efficiency of the process its complexity and the residues generated as a result of the process (waste)—all taking into account usage for military purposes.

The energy production market based on hydrogen technologies is an innovative solution that will allow the industry to achieve climate neutrality in the future in Poland and in the world. The paper presents the idea of using hydrogen as a modern energy carrier and devices that in cooperation with renewable energy sources produce the so-called green hydrogen and the applicable legal acts that allow for the implementation of the new technology were analyzed. Energy transformation is inevitable and according to reports on good practices in European Union countries hydrogen and the hydrogen value chain (production transport and transmission storage use in transport and energy) have wide potential. Thanks to joint projects and subsidies from the EU initiatives supporting hydrogen technologies are created such as hydrogen clusters and hydrogen valleys and EU and national strategic programs set the main goals. Poland is one of the leaders in hydrogen production both in the world and in Europe. Domestic tycoons from the energy refining and chemical industries are involved in the projects. Eight hydrogen valleys that have recently been created in Poland successfully implement the assumptions of the “Polish Hydrogen Strategy until 2030 with a perspective until 2040” and “Energy Policy of Poland until 2040” which are in line with the assumptions of the most important legal acts of the EU including the European Union’s energy and climate policy the Green Deal and the Fit for 55 Package. The review of the analysis of the development of hydrogen technologies in Poland shows that Poland does not differ from other European countries. As part of the assumptions of the European Hydrogen Strategy and the trend related to the management of energy surpluses electrolyzers with a capacity of at least 6 GW will be installed in Poland in 2020–2024. It is also assumed that in the next phase planned for 2025–2030 hydrogen will be a carrier in the energy system in Poland. Poland as a member of the EU is the creator of documents that take into account the assumptions of the European Union Commission and systematically implement the assumed goals. The strategy of activities supporting the development of hydrogen technologies in Poland and the value chain includes very extensive activities related to among others obtaining hydrogen using hydrogen in transport energy and industry developing human resources for the new economy supporting the activities of hydrogen valley stakeholders building hydrogen refueling stations and cooperation among Poland Slovakia and the Czech Republic as part of the HydrogenEagle project.

The novel constructions of hybrid energy sources using polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEMFCs) and supercapacitors are developed. Studies on the energy demand and peak electrical power of unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs) weighing up to 100 kg were conducted under various conditions. It was found that the average electrical power required does not exceed ~2 kW under all conditions studied. However under the dynamic electrical load of the electric drive of mobile robots the short peak power exceeded 2 kW and the highest current load was in the range of 80–90 A. The electrical performance of a family of PEMFC stacks built in open-cathode mode was determined. A hydrogen-usage control strategy for power generation cleaning processes and humidification was analysed. The integration of a PEMFC stack with a bank of supercapacitors makes it possible to mitigate the voltage dips. These occur periodically at short time intervals as a result of short-circuit operation. In the second construction the recovery of electrical energy dissipated by a short-circuit unit (SCU) was also demonstrated in the integrated PEMFC stack and supercapacitor bank system. The concept of an energy-efficient mobile and environmentally friendly hydrogen charging unit has been proposed. It comprises (i) a hydrogen anion exchange membrane electrolyser (ii) a photovoltaic installation (iii) a battery storage (iv) a hydrogen buffer storage in a buffer tank (v) a hydrogen compression unit and (vi) composite tanks.

This comparative study examines the potential for green hydrogen production in Europe and the Middle East leveraging 3MWp solar and wind power plants. Experimental weather data from 2022 inform the selection of two representative cities namely Krakow Poland (Europe) and Diyala Iraq (Middle East). These cities are chosen as industrial–residential zones representing the respective regions’ characteristics. The research optimizes an alkaline water electrolyzer capacity in juxtaposition with the aforementioned power plants to maximize the green hydrogen output. Economic and environmental factors integral to green hydrogen production are assessed to identify the region offering the most advantageous conditions. The analysis reveals that the Middle East holds superior potential for green hydrogen production compared to Europe attributed to a higher prevalence of solar and wind resources coupled with reduced land and labor costs. Hydrogen production costs in Europe are found to range between USD 9.88 and USD 14.31 per kilogram in contrast to the Middle East where costs span from USD 6.54 to USD 12.66 per kilogram. Consequently the Middle East emerges as a more feasible region for green hydrogen production with the potential to curtail emissions enhance air quality and bolster energy security. The research findings highlight the advantages of the Middle East industrial–residential zone ‘Diyala’ and Europe industrial–residential zone ‘Krakow’ in terms of their potential for green hydrogen production.

Geological structures in deep aquifers and salt caverns can play an important role in large-scale hydrogen storage. However more work needs to be done to address the hydrogen storage demand for zero-emission energy systems. Thus the aim of the article is to present the demand for hydrogen storage expressed in the number of salt caverns in bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes or the number of structures in deep aquifers. The analysis considers minimum and maximum hydrogen demand cases depending on future energy system configurations in 2050. The method used included the estimation of the storage capacity of salt caverns in bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes and selected structures in deep aquifers. An estimation showed a large hydrogen storage potential of geological structures. In the case of analyzed bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes the average storage capacity per cavern is 0.05–0.09 TWhH2 and 0.06–0.20 TWhH2 respectively. Hydrogen storage capacity in analyzed deep aquifers ranges from 0.016 to 4.46 TWhH2. These values indicate that in the case of the upper bound for storage demand there is a need for the 62 to 514 caverns depending on considered bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes or the 9 largest analyzed structures in deep aquifers. The results obtained are relevant to the discussion on the global hydrogen economy and the methodology can be used for similar considerations in other countries.

This paper explores the potential for hydrogen energy to become a future trend in Saudi Arabia energy industry. With the emergence of hydrogen as a promising clean energy source there has been growing interest and investment in this area globally. This study investigated whether the country is likely to pursue this trend given its current energy mix and policies. A study was conducted to provide an overview of the global trends and best practices in hydrogen energy adoption and investment. The outcomes of the analysis show that the country current energy mix has the potential to produce green hydrogen energy. The evaluation of its readiness and potential obstacles for hydrogen energy adoption has been drowned and there are several challenges that need to be addressed. The study outcomes also conclude with policy implications and recommendations for the country energy industry.

Liquid hydrogen carriers will soon play a significant role in transporting energy. The key factors that are considered when assessing the applicability of ammonia cracking in large-scale projects are as follows: high energy density easy storage and distribution the simplicity of the overall process and a low or zero-carbon footprint. Thermal systems used for recovering H2 from ammonia require a reaction unit and catalyst that operates at a high temperature (550–800 ◦C) for the complete conversion of ammonia which has a negative effect on the economics of the process. A non-thermal plasma (NTP) solution is the answer to this problem. Ammonia becomes a reliable hydrogen carrier and in combination with NTP offers the high conversion of the dehydrogenation process at a relatively low temperature so that zero-carbon pure hydrogen can be transported over long distances. This paper provides a critical overview of ammonia decomposition systems that focus on non-thermal methods especially under plasma conditions. The review shows that the process has various positive aspects and is an innovative process that has only been reported to a limited extent.

The novelty of the paper is the analysis of the possibilities of reducing the operating costs of a mine water pumping station in an abandoned coal mine. To meet the energy needs of the pumping station and reduce the carbon footprint “green” energy from a photovoltaic farm was used. Surplus green energy generated during peak production is stored in the form of green hydrogen from the water electrolysis process. Rainwater and process water are still underutilized sources for increasing water resources and reducing water stress in the European Union. The article presents the possibilities of using these waters after purification in the production of green hydrogen by electrolysis. The article also presents three variants that ensure the energy self-sufficiency of the proposed concepts of operation of the pumping station.

Hydrogen fuel and electricity are energy carriers viewed as promising alternatives for the modernization and decarbonization of public bus transportation fleets. In order to choose development pathways that will lead transportation systems toward a sustainable future the authors developed an environmental model based on the Life Cycle Assessment approach. The model tested the impact of energy carrier consumption during driving as well as the electricity origin employed to power electric buses and produce hydrogen. Energy sources such as wind solar waste and grid electricity were investigated. The scope of the study included the life cycles of the energy carrier and the necessary infrastructure. The results were presented from two perspectives: the total environmental impact and global warming potential. In order to create a roadmap an original method for choosing sustainable development pathways was prepared. It was shown that the modernization of conventional bus fleets using hydrogen and electrical pathways can provide significant environmental benefits from both perspectives but especially in terms of global warming potential. It was emphasized that attention should be paid to the use of low- and zero-emission energy sources because their impact often strongly influenced the final environmental judgment. The energy carrier consumption also had a strong impact on the results obtained and that is why efforts should be made to reduce it. In addition it was confirmed that hydrogen and electricity production systems based on electricity generated by a waste-to-energy plant could be an environmentally reasonable dual solution for both sustainable waste management and meeting transport needs.

This work investigates the cost-efficient integration of renewable hydrogen into steelworks for the production of methane and methanol as an efficient way to decarbonize the steel industry. Three case studies that utilize a mixture of steelworks off-gases (blast furnace gas coke oven gas and basic oxygen furnace gas) which differ on the amount of used off-gases as well as on the end product (methane and/or methanol) are analyzed and evaluated in terms of their economic performance. The most influential cost factors are identified and sensitivity analyses are conducted for different operating and economic parameters. Renewable hydrogen produced by PEM electrolysis is the most expensive component in this scheme and responsible for over 80% of the total costs. Progress in the hydrogen economy (lower electrolyzer capital costs improved electrolyzer efficiency and lower electricity prices) is necessary to establish this technology in the future.

The hydrogen dispersion phenomenon in an enclosure depends on the ratio of the gas buoyancy induced momentum. Random diffusive motions of individual gas particles become dominative when the release momentum is low. Then a uniform hydrogen concentration appears in the enclosure instead of the gas stratification below the ceiling. The paper justifies this hypothesis by demonstrating fullscale experimental results of hydrogen dispersion within a confined space under six different release variations. During the experiments hydrogen was released into the test room of 60 m3 volume in two methods: through a nozzle and through 21 points evenly distributed on the emission box cover (multipoint release). Each release method was tested with three different hydrogen volume flow rates (3.17·10−3 m3/s 1.63·10−3 m3/s 3.34·10−4 m3/s). The tests confirm the increase of hydrogen convective upward flow and its stratification tendency relative to increased volume flow. A tendency of more uniform hydrogen cloud distribution when Mach Reynolds and Froud number values decreased was demonstrated. Because the hydrogen dispersion phenomena impact fire and explosive hazards the presented experimental results could help fire protection systems be in an enclosure designed allowing their effectiveness optimization.

Underground storage is a method of storing large amounts of renewable energy that can be converted into hydrogen. One of the fundamental problems associated with this process concerns determining the timing and amount of injected gas in the first filling period for the operation of an underground storage facility. Ascertaining the hydrogen flow rate is essential to ensure that the capillary and fracturing pressures are not exceeded. The value of the flow rate was assessed by modelling the injection of hydrogen into a deep aquifer. The best initial H2 injection period was found to be five months. The volume of the cushion gas and the total storage capacity expanded with the extension of the first filling period length. The working capacity grew as the depth increased reaching maximum values at depths of approximately 1200e1400 m. This depth was considered optimal for storing hydrogen in the analysed structure.

This article was aimed to answer the question of whether local energy communities have a sufficient energy surplus for storage purposes including hydrogen production. The article presents an innovative approach to current research and a discussion of the concepts of the collective prosumer and virtual prosumer that have been implemented in the legal order and further amended in the law. From this perspective it was of utmost importance to analyze the model of functioning of an energy cluster consisting of energy consumers energy producers and hydrogen storage whose goal is to maximize the obtained benefits assuming the co-operative nature of the relationship. The announced and clear perspective of the planned benefits will provide the cluster members a measurable basis for participation in such an energy community. However the catalogue of benefits will be conditioned by the fulfillment of several requirements related to both the scale of covering energy demand from own sources and the need to store surplus energy. As part of the article the results of analyses together with a functional model based on real data of the local energy community are presented.

The article proposes the use of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method to select a risk assessment technique associated with underground hydrogen storage. The initial choosing and ranking of risk assessment techniques can be considered as a multi-criteria decision problem. The usage of a decision model based on six criteria is proposed. A ranking of methods for estimating the risks associated with underground hydrogen storage is presented. The obtained results show that the application of the AHP-based approach may be a useful tool for selecting the UHS risk assessment technique. The proposed method makes it possible to make an objective decision of the most satisfactory approach from the point of view of all the adopted decision criteria regarding the selection of the best risk assessment technique.

Transformation of road transport sector through replacing of internal combustion vehicles with zero-emission technologies is among key challenges to achievement of climate neutrality by 2050. In a constantly developing economy the demand for transport services increases to ensure continuity in the supply chain and passenger mobility. Deployment of electric technologies in the road transport sector involves both businesses and households its pace depends on the technological development of zero-emission vehicles presence of necessary infrastructure and regulations on emission standards for new vehicles entering the market. Thus this study attempts to estimate how long combustion vehicles will be in use and what the state of the fleet will be in 2050. For obtainment of results the TR3E partial equilibrium model was used. The study simulates the future fleet structure in passenger and freight transport. The results obtained for Poland for the climate neutrality (NEU) scenario show that in 2050 the share of vehicles using fossil fuels will be ca. 30% in both road passenger and freight transport. The consequence of shifts in the structure of the fleet is the reduction of CO2 emissions ca. 80% by 2050 and increase of the transport demand for electricity and hydrogen.

Thermal gas meters represent a promising technology for billing customers for gaseous fuels however it is essential to ensure that measurement accuracy is maintained in the long term and in a broad range of operating conditions. The effect of hydrogen addition to natural gas will change the physicochemical properties of the mixture of natural gas and hydrogen. Such a mixture will be supplied through the gas system to consumers including households where the amounts of received gas will be metered. The physicochemical properties of hydrogen including the specific density or viscosity differ significantly from those of the natural gas components such as methane ethane propane nitrogen etc. Therefore it is of utmost importance to establish the impact of the changes in the gas composition caused by the addition of hydrogen to natural gas on the metrological properties of household gas meters including thermal gas meters. Furthermore since household gas meters can be installed outdoors and taking into account the fact that household gas meters are good heat exchangers the influence of ambient and gas temperature on the metrological properties of those meters should be investigated. This article reviews a test bench and a testing method concerning errors of thermal gas meter indicators using air and natural gas including the type containing hydrogen. The indication errors for thermal gas meters using air natural gas and natural gas with an addition of 2% 4% 5% 10% and 15% hydrogen were determined and then subjected to metrological analysis. Moreover the test method and test bench are discussed and the results of tests on the impact of ambient and gas temperatures (-25 ◦C and 55 ◦C respectively) on the errors of indications of thermal gas meters are presented. Conclusions for distribution system operators in terms of gas meter selection were drawn based on the test results.

This study concerns the production of hydrogen from a mixture of ethanol and water. The process was conducted in plasma generated by a spark discharge. The substrates were introduced in the liquid phase into the reactor. The gaseous products formed in the spark reactor were hydrogen carbon monoxide carbon dioxide methane acetylene and ethylene. Coke was also produced. The energy efficiency of hydrogen production was 27 mol(H2 )/kWh and it was 36% of the theoretical energy efficiency. The high value of the energy efficiency of hydrogen production was obtained with relatively high ethanol conversion (63%). In the spark discharge it was possible to conduct the process under conditions in which the ethanol conversion reached 95%. However this entailed higher energy consumption and reduced the energy efficiency of hydrogen production to 8.8 mol(H2 )/kWh. Hydrogen production increased with increasing discharge power and feed stream. However the hydrogen concentration was very high under all tested conditions and ranged from 57.5 to 61.5%. This means that the spark reactor is a device that can feed fuel cells the power load of which can fluctuate.

One of the many barriers to decarbonization and decentralization of the energy sector in developing countries is the economic uncertainty. As such this study scrutinizes economics of three grid-independent hybrid renewable-based systems proposed to co-generate electricity and heat for a small-scale load. Accordingly the under-study systems are simulated and optimized with the aid of HOMER Pro software. Here a 20-year average value of discount and inflation rates is deemed a benchmark case. The techno-economic-environmental and reliability results suggest a standalone solar/wind/electrolyzer/hydrogen-based fuel cell integrated with a hydrogen-based boiler system is the best alternative. Moreover to ascertain the impact of economic uncertainty on optimal unit sizing of the nominated model the fluctuations of the nominal discount rate and inflation respectively constitute within the range of 15–20% and 10–26%. The findings of economic uncertainty analysis imply that total net present cost (TNPC) fluctuates around the benchmark value symmetrically between $478704 and $814905. Levelized energy cost varies from an amount 69% less than the benchmark value up to two-fold of that. Furthermore photovoltaic (PV) optimal size starts from a value 23% less than the benchmark case and rises up to 55% more. The corresponding figures for wind turbine (WT) are respectively 21% and 29%. Eventually several practical policies are introduced to cope with economic uncertainty.

This paper presents a theoretical analysis of the selected properties of HCNG fuel calculations and a literature review of the other fuels that allow the storage of ecologically produced hydrogen. Hydrogen has the most significant CO2 reduction potential of all known fuels. However its transmission in pure form is still problematic and its use as a component of fuels modified by it has now become an issue of interest for researchers. Many types of hydrogen-enriched fuels have been invented. However this article will describe the reasons why HCNG may be the hydrogen-enriched fuel of the future and why internal combustion (IC) piston engines working on two types of fuel could be the future method of using it. CO2 emissions are currently a serious problem in protecting the Earth’s natural climate. However secondarily power grid stabilization with a large share of electricity production from renewable energy sources must be stabilized with very flexible sources—as flexible as multi-fuel IC engines. Their use is becoming an essential element of the electricity power systems of Western countries and there is a chance to use fuels with zero or close to zero CO2 emissions like e-fuels and HCNG. Dual-fuel engines have become an effective way of using these types of fuels efficiently; therefore in this article the parameters of hydrogen-enriched fuel selected in terms of relevance to the use of IC engines are considered. Inaccuracies found in the literature analysis are discussed and the essential properties of HCNG and its advantages over other hydrogen-rich fuels are summarized in terms of its use in dual-fuel (DF) IC engines.

Over the last years the European Union has seen a rapid increase in installed capacity of generating units based on renewable energy sources (RES). The most significant increase in installed capacity was recorded in 2015 in wind farms and solar PV installations. One of the most serious is the volatile character of RES on a time basis. Therefore for a further expected increase in the use of RES and their effectiveness improvements investments are needed allowing for electricity to be stored. One of the electricity storage options is to use excess electricity in order to produce hydrogen by electrolysis of water. Although this process plays a marginal role in obtaining hydrogen on a worldwide basis due to high costs experience in recent years has shown that periodically low (negative) electricity prices developing on the power exchanges in the situation where there is surplus electricity available affect economic requirements for hydrogen production technologies. The paper shows activities undertaken by European countries (mainly Germany) aiming at making it possible for hydrogen to be stored in the natural gas grids. A particular attention is given to material resource issues and possible operational problems that might arise while blending natural gas with hydrogen into the grid. The experiences of selected European countries are of particular interest from the Polish perspective having regard to significant increase of RES in electricity generation during the last few years and adopted objectives for the growing importance of RES in the Poland’s energy balance.

Island energy systems are becoming an important part of energy transformation due to the growing needs for the penetration of renewable energy. Among the possible systems a combination of different energy generation technologies is a viable option for local users as long as energy storage is implemented. The presented paper describes an energy-economic assessment of an island system with a photovoltaic field small wind turbine wood chip gasifier battery and hydrogen circuit with electrolyzer and fuel cell. The system is designed to satisfy the electrical energy demand of a tourist facility in two European localizations. The operation of the system is developed and dynamically simulated in the Transient System Simulation (TRNSYS) environment taking into account realistic user demand. The results show that in Gdansk Poland it is possible to satisfy 99% of user demand with renewable energy sources with excess energy equal to 31% while in Agkistro Greece a similar result is possible with 43% of excess energy. Despite the high initial costs it is possible to obtain Simple Pay Back periods of 12.5 and 22.5 years for Gdansk and Agkistro respectively. This result points out that under a high share of renewables in the energy demand of the user the profitability of the system is highly affected by the local cost of energy vectors. The achieved results show that the system is robust in providing energy to the users and that future development may lead to an operation based fully on renewables.

In Poland hydrogen production should be carried out using renewable energy sources particularly wind energy (as this is the most efficient zero-emission technology available). According to hydrogen demand in Poland and to ensure stability as well as security of energy supply and also the realization of energy policy for the EU it is necessary to use offshore wind energy for direct hydrogen production. In this study a centralized offshore hydrogen production system in the Baltic Sea area was presented. The goal of our research was to explore the possibility of producing hydrogen using offshore wind energy. After analyzing wind conditions and calculating the capacity of the proposed wind farm a 600 MW offshore hydrogen platform was designed along with a pipeline to transport hydrogen to onshore storage facilities. Taking into account Poland’s Baltic Sea area wind conditions with capacity factor between 45 and 50% and having obtained results with highest monthly average output of 3508.85 t of hydrogen it should be assumed that green hydrogen production will reach profitability most quickly with electricity from offshore wind farms.

The paper presents the possibilities of low-emission-powered vehicles based mainly on compressed hydrogen. It shows currently used forms of powering vehicles based on their genesis process of obtention and popularity. They are also compared to each other presenting the advantages and disadvantages of a given solution. The share of electricity in transport its forecasts for the future and the possibilities of combination with conventional energy sources are also described. Based on current technological capabilities hydrogen plays a crucial role as presented in the above work constituting a fundamental basis for future transport solutions.

A huge amount of organic waste is generated annually around the globe. The main sources of solid and liquid organic waste are municipalities and canning and food industries. Most of it is disposed of in an environmentally unfriendly way since none of the modern recycling technologies can cope with such immense volumes of waste. Microbiological and biotechnological approaches are extremely promising for solving this environmental problem. Moreover organic waste can serve as the substrate to obtain alternative energy such as biohydrogen (H2 ) and biomethane (CH4 ). This work aimed to design and test new technology for the degradation of food waste coupled with biohydrogen and biomethane production as well as liquid organic leachate purification. The effective treatment of waste was achieved due to the application of the specific granular microbial preparation. Microbiological and physicochemical methods were used to measure the fermentation parameters. As a result a four-module direct flow installation efficiently couples spatial succession of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria with other micro- and macroorganisms to simultaneously recycle organic waste remediate the resulting leachate and generate biogas.

This article presents a novel approach to the analysis of heat release in a hydrogen-fueled internal combustion spark-ignition engine with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). It also discusses aspects of thermodynamic analysis common to modeling and empirical analysis. This new approach concerns a novel method of calculating the specific heat ratio (cp/cv) and takes into account the reduction in the number of moles during combustion which is characteristic of hydrogen combustion. This reduction in the number of moles was designated as a molar contraction. This is particularly crucial when calculating the average temperature during combustion. Subsequently the outcomes of experimental tests including the heat-release rate the initial combustion phase (denoted CA0- 10) and the main combustion phase (CA10-90) are presented. Furthermore the impact of exhaust gas recirculation on the combustion process in the engine is also discussed. The efficacy of the proposed measures was validated by analyzing the heat-release rate and calculating the mean combustion temperature in the engine. The application of EGR in the range 0-40% resulted in a notable prolongation of both the initial and main combustion phases which consequently influenced the mean combustion temperature.

The large-scale deployment of technologies that enable energy from renewables is essential for a successful transition to a carbon-neutral future. While photovoltaic panels are one of the main technologies commonly used for harvesting energy from the Sun storage of renewable solar energy still presents some challenges and often requires integration with additional devices. It is believed that hydrogen – being a perfect energy carrier – can become one of the broadly utilised storage alternatives that would effectively mitigate the energy supply and demand issues associated with the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources. Current pathways in the development of green technologies indicate the need for more sustainable material utilisation and more efficient device operation. To address this requirement integration of various technologies for renewable energy harvesting conversion and storage in a single device appears as an advantageous option. From the hydrogen economy perspective systems driven by green solar electricity that allow for (photo)electrochemical water splitting would generate hydrogen with the minimal CO2 footprint. If at the same time one of the device electrodes could store the generated gas and release it on demand the utilisation of critical and often costly elements would be reduced with possible gain in more effective device operation. Although conceptually attractive this cross-disciplinary concept has not gained yet enough attention and only limited number of experimental setups have been designed tested and reported. This review presents the first exhaustive overview and critical examination of various laboratory-scale prototype setups that attempt to combine both the hydrogen production and storage processes in a single unit via integration of a metal hydride-based electrode into a photoelectrochemical cell. The architectures of presented configurations enables direct solar energy to hydrogen conversion and its subsequent storage in a single device which – in some cases – can also release the stored (hydrogen) energy on demand. In addition this work explores perspectives and challenges related with the potential upscaling of reviewed solar-to-hydrogen storage systems trying to map and indicate the main future directions of their technological development and optimization. Finally the review also combines information and expertise scattered among various research fields with the aim of stimulating much-needed exchange of knowledge to accelerate the progress in the development and deployment of optimum green hydrogen-based solutions.

Efforts to direct the economies of many countries towards low-carbon economies are being made in order to reduce their impact on global climate change. Within this process replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen will play an important role in the sectors where electrification is difficult or technically and economically ineffective. Hydrogen may also play a critical role in renewable energy storage processes. Thus the global hydrogen demand is expected to rise more than five times by 2050 while in the European Union a seven-fold rise in this field is expected. Apart from many technical and legislative barriers the environmental impact of hydrogen production is a key issue especially in the case of new and developing technologies. Focusing on the various pathways of hydrogen production the essential problem is to evaluate the related emissions through GHG accounting considering the life cycle of a plant in order to compare the technologies effectively. Anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis is one of the newest technologies in this field with no LCA studies covering its full operation. Thus this study is focused on a calculation of the carbon footprint and economic indicators of a green hydrogen plant on the basis of a life cycle assessment including the concept of a solar-to-hydrogen plant with AEM electrolyzers operating under Polish climate conditions. The authors set the range of the GWP indicators as 2.73–4.34 kgCO2eq for a plant using AEM electrolysis which confirmed the relatively low emissivity of hydrogen from solar energy also in relation to this innovative technology. The economic profitability of the investment depends on external subsidies because as developing technology the AEM electrolysis of green hydrogen from photovoltaics is still uncompetitive in terms of its cost without this type of support.

The main results highlighted in this article underline the critical significance of hydrogen technologies in the move towards carbon neutrality. This research focuses on several key areas including the production storage safety and usage of hydrogen alongside innovative approaches for assessing hydrogen purity and production-related technologies. This study emphasizes the vital role of hydrogen storage technology for the future utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier and the advancement of technologies that facilitate effective safe and cost-efficient hydrogen storage. Furthermore bibliometric analysis has been instrumental in identifying primary research fields such as hydrogen storage hydrogen production efficient electrocatalysts rotary engines utilizing hydrogen as fuel and underground hydrogen storage. Each domain is essential for realizing a sustainable hydrogen economy reflecting the significant research and development efforts in hydrogen technologies. Recent trends have shown an increased interest in underground hydrogen storage as a method to enhance energy security and assist in the transition towards sustainable energy systems. This research delves into the technical economic and environmental facets of employing geological formations for large-scale seasonal and long-term hydrogen storage. Ultimately the development of hydrogen technologies is deemed crucial for meeting sustainable development goals particularly in terms of addressing climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrogen serves as an energy carrier that could substantially lessen reliance on fossil fuels while encouraging the adoption of renewable energy sources aiding in the decarbonization of transport industry and energy production sectors. This in turn supports worldwide efforts to curb global warming and achieve carbon neutrality.

The main purpose of this work is to investigate the influence of methane addition in methane-hydrogen-air mixture (φ = 0.8 – 1.6) on the critical conditions for transition to detonation in a 90-deg wedge corner. Similar to hydrogen-air mixtures investigated previously [1] methane-hydrogen-air mixtures results showed three ignition modes weak ignition followed by deflagration with ignition delay time higher than 1 μs strong ignition with instantaneous transition to detonation and third with deflagrative ignition and delayed transition to detonation. Methane addition caused an increase in the range of 3.25 – 5.03% in the critical shock wave velocity necessary for transition to detonation for all mixtures considered. For example in stoichiometric mixture with 5% methane in fuel (95% hydrogen in fuel) in air the transition to detonation velocity was approx. 752 m/s (an increase of 37 m/s from hydrogen-air) corresponding to M = 1.89 (an increase of 0.14 from hydrogen-air) and 75.7% (an increase of 4.7% from hydrogen-air) of speed of sound in products. Also similar to hydrogen-air mixture the transition to detonation velocity increased for leaner and richer mixture. Moreover it was observed that methane addition in general increased the pressure limit at the corner necessary for transition to detonation.

Building a hydrogen economy is perceived as a way to achieve the decarbonization goals set out in the Paris Agreement to limit global warming as well as to meet the goals resulting from the European Green Deal for the decarbonization of Europe. This article presents a literature review of various aspects of this economy. The full added value chain of hydrogen was analyzed from its production through to storage transport distribution and use in various economic sectors. The current state of knowledge about hydrogen is presented with particular emphasis on its features that may determine the positives and negatives of its development. It was noted that although hydrogen has been known for many years its production methods are mainly related to fossil fuels which result in greenhouse gas emissions. The area of interest of modern science is limited to green hydrogen produced as a result of electrolysis from electricity produced from renewable energy sources. The development of a clean hydrogen economy is limited by many factors the most important of which are the excessive costs of producing clean hydrogen. Research and development on all elements of the hydrogen production and use chain is necessary to contribute to increasing the scale of production and use of this raw material and thus reducing costs as a result of the efficiencies of scale and experience gained. The development of the hydrogen economy will be related to the development of the hydrogen trade and the centers of this trade will differ significantly from the current centers of energy carrier trade.

This research investigates the potential of using bedded salt formations for underground hydrogen storage. We present a novel artificial intelligence framework that employs spatial data analysis and multi-criteria decision-making to pinpoint the most appropriate sites for hydrogen storage in salt caverns. This methodology incorporates a comprehensive platform enhanced by a deep learning algorithm specifically a convolutional neural network (CNN) to generate suitability maps for rock salt deposits for hydrogen storage. The efficacy of the CNN algorithm was assessed using metrics such as Mean Absolute Error (MAE) Mean Squared Error (MSE) Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Correlation Coefficient (R2 ) with comparisons made to a real-world dataset. The CNN model showed outstanding performance with an R2 of 0.96 MSE of 1.97 MAE of 1.003 and RMSE of 1.4. This novel approach leverages advanced deep learning techniques to offer a unique framework for assessing the viability of underground hydrogen storage. It presents a significant advancement in the field offering valuable insights for a wide range of stakeholders and facilitating the identification of ideal sites for hydrogen storage facilities thereby supporting informed decisionmaking and sustainable energy infrastructure development.

The desire to maintain CO2 concentrations in the global atmosphere implies the need to introduce ’new’ energy carriers for transport applications. Therefore the operational consumption of each such potential medium in the ’natural’ exploitation of vehicles must be assessed. A useful assessment method may be the vehicle’s energy footprint resulting from the theory of cumulative fuel consumption presented in the article. Using a (very modest) database of long-term use of hydrogen-powered cars the usefulness of this method was demonstrated. Knowing the energy footprint of vehicles of a given brand and type and the statistical characteristics of the footprint elements it is also possible to assess vehicle fleets in terms of energy demand. The database on the use of energy carriers such as hydrogen in the long-term operation of passenger vehicles is still relatively modest; however as it has been shown valuable data can be obtained to assess the energy demand of vehicles of a given brand and type. Access to a larger operational database will allow for wider use of the presented method.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become an integral part of modern life serving both civilian and military applications across various sectors. However existing power supply systems such as batteries often fail to provide stable long-duration flights limiting their applications. Previous studies have primarily focused on battery-based power which offers limited flight endurance due to lower energy densities and higher system mass. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells present a promising alternative providing high power and efficiency without noise vibrations or greenhouse gas emissions. Due to hydrogen’s high specific energy which is substantially higher than that of combustion engines and battery-based alternatives UAV operational time can be significantly extended. This paper investigates the potential of PEM fuel cells as an alternative power source for electric propulsion in UAVs. This study introduces an adaptive fully functioning PEM fuel cell model developed using a reduced-order modeling approach and optimized for UAV applications. This research demonstrates that PEM fuel cells can effectively double the flight endurance of UAVs compared to traditional battery systems achieving energy densities of around 1700 Wh/kg versus 150–250 Wh/kg for batteries. Despite a slight increase in system mass fuel cells enable significantly longer UAV operations. The scope of this study encompasses the comparison of battery-based and fuel cell-based propulsion systems in terms of power mass and flight endurance. This paper identifies the limitations and optimal applications for fuel cells providing strong evidence for their use in UAVs where extended flight time and efficiency are critical.

The paper discusses potential hazards at hydrogen refueling stations for transportation vehicles: cars and trucks. The main hazard analyzed here is an uncontrolled gas release due to a failure in one of the structures in the station: storage tanks of different pressure levels or a dispenser. This may lead to a hydrogen cloud occurring near the source of the release or at a given distance. The range of the cloud was analyzed in connection to the amount of the released gas and the wind velocity. The results of the calculations were compared for chosen structures in the station. Then potential fires and explosions were investigated. The hazard zones were calculated with respect to heat fluxes generated in the fires and the overpressure generated in explosions. The maximum ranges of these zones vary from about 14 to 30 m and from about 9 to 14 m for a fires and an explosions of hydrogen respectively. Finally human death probabilities are presented as functions of the distance from the sources of the uncontrolled hydrogen releases. These are shown for different amounts and pressures of the released gas. In addition the risk of human death is determined along with the area where it reaches the highest value in the whole station. The risk of human death in this area is 1.63 × 10−5 [1/year]. The area is approximately 8 square meters.

This study conducted a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of alternative (electric and hydrogen) and conventional diesel buses in a large metropolitan area. The primary focus was on hydrogen derived from coke oven gas a byproduct of the coking process which is a crucial step in the steel production value chain. The functional unit was 1000000 km traveled over 15 years. LCA analysis using SimaPro v9.3 revealed significant environmental differences between the bus types. Hydrogen buses outperformed electric buses in all 11 environmental impact categories and in 5 of 11 categories compared to conventional diesel buses. The most substantial improvements for hydrogen buses were observed in ozone depletion (8.6% of diesel buses) and global warming (29.9% of diesel buses). As a bridge to a future dominated by green hydrogen employing grey hydrogen from coke oven gas in buses provides a practical way to decrease environmental harm in regions abundant with this resource. This interim solution can significantly contribute to climate policy goals.

The use of green hydrogen as a high-energy fuel of the future may be an opportunity to balance the unstable energy system which still relies on renewable energy sources. This work is a comprehensive review of recent advancements in green hydrogen production. This review outlines the current energy consumption trends. It presents the tasks and challenges of the hydrogen economy towards green hydrogen including production purification transportation storage and conversion into electricity. This work presents the main types of water electrolyzers: alkaline electrolyzers proton exchange membrane electrolyzers solid oxide electrolyzers and anion exchange membrane electrolyzers. Despite the higher production costs of green hydrogen compared to grey hydrogen this review suggests that as renewable energy technologies become cheaper and more efficient the cost of green hydrogen is expected to decrease. The review highlights the need for cost-effective and efficient electrode materials for large-scale applications. It concludes by comparing the operating parameters and cost considerations of the different electrolyzer technologies. It sets targets for 2050 to improve the efficiency durability and scalability of electrolyzers. The review underscores the importance of ongoing research and development to address the limitations of current electrolyzer technology and to make green hydrogen production more competitive with fossil fuels.

Acting in accordance with the requirements of the 2015 Paris Agreement Poland as well as other European Union countries have committed to achieving climate neutrality by 2050. One of the solutions to reduce emissions of harmful substances into the environment is the implementation of large-scale hydrogen technologies. This article presents the cost of producing green hydrogen produced using an alkaline electrolyzer with electricity supplied from a photovoltaic farm. The analysis was performed using the Monte Carlo method and for baseline assumptions including an electricity price of 0.053 EUR/kWh the cost of producing green hydrogen was 5.321 EUR/kgH2 . In addition this article presents a sensitivity analysis showing the impact of the electricity price before and after the energy crisis and other variables on the cost of green hydrogen production. The large change occurring in electricity prices (from 0.035 EUR/kWh to 0.24 EUR/kWh) significantly affected the levelized cost of green hydrogen (LCOH) which could change by up to 14 EUR/kgH2 in recent years. The results of the analysis showed that the parameters that successively have the greatest impact on the cost of green hydrogen production are the operating time of the plant and the unit capital expenditure. The development of green hydrogen production facilities along with the scaling of technology in the future can reduce the cost of its production.

This article describes an example of using the measurement data from photovoltaic systems and wind turbines to perform practical probabilistic calculations around green hydrogen generation. First the power generated in one month by a ground-mounted photovoltaic system with a peak power of 3 MWp is described. Using the Metalog family of probability distributions the probability of generating selected power levels corresponding to the amount of green hydrogen produced is calculated. Identical calculations are performed for the simulation data allowing us to determine the power produced by a wind turbine with a maximum power of 3.45 MW. After interpolating both time series of the power generated by the renewable energy sources to a common sampling time they are summed. For the sum of the power produced by the photovoltaic system and the wind turbine the probability of generating selected power levels corresponding to the amount of green hydrogen produced is again calculated. The presented calculations allow us to determine with probability distribution accuracy the amount of hydrogen generated from the energy sources constituting a mix of photovoltaics and wind. The green hydrogen production model includes the hardware and the geographic context. It can be used to determine the preliminary assumptions related to the production of large amounts of green hydrogen in selected locations. The calculations presented in this article are a practical example of Business Intelligence.