Netherlands

The manuscript firstly describes the data collection and validation process for the European Hydrogen Incidents and Accidents Database (HIAD 2.0) a public repository tool collecting systematic data on hydrogen-related incidents and near-misses. This is followed by an overview of HIAD 2.0 which currently contains 706 events. Subsequently the approaches and procedures followed by the authors to derive lessons learned and formulate recommendations from the events are described. The lessons learned have been divided into four categories including system design; system manufacturing installation and modification; human factors and emergency response. An overarching lesson learned is that minor events which occurred simultaneously could still result in serious consequences echoing James Reason's Swiss Cheese theory. Recommendations were formulated in relation to the established safety principles adapted for hydrogen by the European Hydrogen Safety Panel considering operational modes industrial sectors and human factors. This work provide an important contribution to the safety of systems involving hydrogen benefitting technical safety engineers emergency responders and emergency services. The lesson learned and the discussion derived from the statistics can also be used in training and risk assessment studies being of equal importance to promote and assist the development of sound safety culture in organisations.

The EC 6th framework research project HyApproval will draft a Handbook which will describe all relevant issues to get approval to construct and operate a Hydrogen Refuelling Station (HRS) for hydrogen vehicles. In WP3 of the HyApproval project it is under investigation which safety information competent authorities require to give a licence to construct an operate an HRS. The paper describes the applied methodology to collect the information from the authorities in 5 EC countries and the USA. The results of the interviews and recommendations for the information to include in the Handbook are presented.

The transition period towards the situation in which hydrogen will become an important energy carrier will be lengthy (decades) costly and needs a significant R&D effort. It’s clear therefore that the development of a hydrogen system requires a practical strategy within the context of the existing assets. Examining the potential of the existing extensive natural gas chain (transmission - distribution - end user infrastructures and appliances) is a logical first step towards the widespread delivery of hydrogen.

The project will define the conditions under which hydrogen can be mixed with natural gas for delivery by the existing natural gas system and later withdrawn selectively from the pipeline system by advanced separation technologies. Membranes will be developed to enable this separation. The socio-economic and life cycle consequences of this hydrogen delivery approach will be mapped out. By adding hydrogen to natural gas the physical and chemical properties of the mixture will differ from “pure” natural gas. As this may have a major effect on safety issues and durability issues (which also have a safety component) related to the gas delivery and the performance of end use appliances these issues are particularly addressed in the project.

The project is executed by a European consortium of 39 partners (including 15 from the gas industry). In this project set up under the auspices of GERG The European Gas Research Group there are leading roles for N.V. Nederlandse Gasunie (NL) Gaz de France (F) TNO (NL) ISQ (P) the Universities of Loughborough and Warwick (UK) and Exergia (GR). Guidance will be provided by a Strategic Advisory Committee consisting of representatives from relevant (inter)national organizations.

The project started on 1st May 2004 and will run for 5 years. The European Commission has selected the Integrated Project NATURALHY for financial support within the Sixth Framework Programme.

High pressure storage of hydrogen in tanks is a promising option to provide the necessary fuel for transportation purposes. The fill process of a high-pressure tank should be reasonably short but must be designed to avoid too high temperatures in the tank. The shorter the fill should be the higher the maximum temperature in the tank climbs. For safety reasons an upper temperature limit is included in the requirements for refillable hydrogen tanks (ISO 15869) which sets the limit for any fill optimization. It is crucial to understand the phenomena during a tank fill to stay within the safety margins.<br/>The paper describes the fast filling process of hydrogen tanks by simulations based on the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code CFX. The major result of the simulations is the local temperature distribution in the tank depending on the materials of liner and outer thermal insulation. Different material combinations (type III and IV) are investigated.<br/>Some measurements from literature are available and are used to validate the approach followed in CFX to simulate the fast filling of tanks. Validation has to be continued in future to further improve the predictability of the calculations for arbitrary geometries and material combinations.

The thermal behaviour of several commercial hydrogen tanks has been studied during high pressure (70-84 MPa) hydrogen cycling. The temperature of the gas at different points inside the tank the temperature at the bosses and the tank outer wall temperature have been measured under different filling and emptying conditions. From the experimental results the effect of the filling rate (1.5-4 g/s) and the influence of the liner material in the thermal behaviour of the hydrogen tanks have been evaluated. Bosses thermal response under the different cycling conditions has also been investigated.

For refuelling on-board hydrogen tanks table-based or formula based protocols are commonly used. These protocols are designed to achieve a tank filling close to 100% SOC (State of Charge) in s safe way: without surpassing temperature (-40°C to 85°C) and pressure limits (125% Nominal Working Pressure NWP). The ambient temperature the initial pressure and the volume category of the (compressed hydrogen storage system CHSS are used as inputs to determine the final target pressure and the pressure ramp rate (which controls the filling duration). However abnormal out-of-spec events (e.g. misinformation of storage system status and characteristics of the storage tanks) may occur and result in a refuelling in which the safety boundaries are surpassed. In the present article the possible out of specification (out-of-spec) events in a refuelling station have been analyzed. The associated hazards when refuelling on-board hydrogen tanks have been studied. Experimental results of out-of-spec event tests performed on a type 3 tank are presented. The results show that on the type 3 tank the safety temperature limit of 85°C was only surpassed under a combination of events; e.g. an unnoticed stop of the cooling of the gas combined with a wrong input of ambient temperature at a very warm environment. On the other hand under certain events (e.g. cooling the gas below the target temperature) and in particular under cold environmental conditions the 100% SOC limit established in the fuelling protocols has been surpassed. Hydrogen safety on-board tanks refuelling protocols out-of-spec events.

Hydrogen has the potential to be used by many countries as part of decarbonising the future energy system. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel ‘vector’ to store and transport energy produced in low-carbon ways. This could be particularly important in applications such as heating and transport where other solutions for low and zero carbon emission are difficult. To enable the safe uptake of hydrogen technologies it is important to develop the international scientific evidence base on the potential risks to safety and how to control them effectively. The International Association for Hydrogen Safety (known as IA HySAFE) is leading global efforts to ensure this. HSE hosted the 2018 IA HySAFE Biennial Research Priorities Workshop. A panel of international experts presented during nine key topic sessions: (1) Industrial and National Programmes; (2) Applications; (3) Storage; (4) Accident Physics – Gas Phase; (5) Accident Physics – Liquid/ Cryogenic Behaviour; (6) Materials; (7) Mitigation Sensors Hazard Prevention and Risk Reduction; (8) Integrated Tools for Hazard and Risk Assessment; (9) General Aspects of Safety.<br/>This report gives an overview of each topic made by the session chairperson. It also gives further analysis of the totality of the evidence presented. The workshop outputs are shaping international activities on hydrogen safety. They are helping key stakeholders to identify gaps in knowledge and expertise and to understand and plan for potential safety challenges associated with the global expansion of hydrogen in the energy system.

Low-carbon gases are indispensable to any energy system that is reliable clean affordable safe and is suited to spatial integration and zero-carbon hydrogen is a crucial link in that chain1. The most common element in the universe seems to have a highly bonding effect in the Netherlands – particularly as a result of the unique starting position of our country. This is made clear in the agreements of the National Climate Agreement which includes an ambitious target for hydrogen supported by a large and broad group of stakeholders. Industrial clusters and ports regard hydrogen as an indispensable part of their future and sustainability strategy. For the transport sector hydrogen (in combination with fuel cells) is crucial to achieving zero emissions transport. The agricultural sector has identified opportunities for the production of hydrogen and for its use. Cities regions and provinces are keen to get started on implementing hydrogen.<br/>The government embraces these targets and recognises the power of the framework for action demonstrated by so many parties. The focus on clean hydrogen in the Netherlands will lead to the creation of new jobs improvements to air quality and moreover is crucial to the energy transition.

The development of the temperature field in hydrogen tanks during the filling process has been investigated with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Measurements from experiments undertaken at the JRC GasTef facility have been used to develop and validate the CFD modelling strategy; by means of the CFD calculations the effect of the injector direction on the temperature distribution has been analysed. It has been found that the dynamics of the temperature field including the development of potentially detrimental phenomena like thermal stratification and temperature inhomogeneity e.g. hot spots can be significantly affected by the injector orientation.

The Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission together with the European Association of Research and Technology Organisations (EARTO) the European Standards Organisations (ESO) CEN and CENELEC and the European Commission Directorate-General Enterprise and Industry (ENTR) have launched an initiative within the context of the European Forum on Science and Industry to bring the scientific and standardization communities closer together. The second and very successful workshop in a series entitled “Putting Science into Standards" was held in at the Institute for Energy and Transport of the JRC in Petten on 21-22 October 2014.<br/>The workshop focused on Power to Hydrogen (P2H) and Hydrogen Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG) which represent a promising and major contribution to the challenging management of increased integration of renewable energy sources in the overall energy system. The workshop offered a platform to exchange ideas on technologies policy and standardization issues. The participation of major stakeholders from both industry and research to this event proved fruitful in moving towards consensus on the relevant technical issues involved and at identifying a common way forward to increase the maturity and market visibility of P2H components and systems. Other outcomes include a clarification of expectations of industry of where and how policy and standardization can contribute to a competitive development of P2H and related issues. The workshop results will be used to devise a roadmap on "Opportunities for Power to Hydrogen and HCNG" by CEN/CENELEC outlining the next steps of standardization activities.

Hydrogen is a promising avenue for decarbonising energy systems and providing flexibility. In this paper the JRC-EU-TIMES model – a bottom-up technology-rich model of the EU28 energy system – is used to assess the role of hydrogen in a future decarbonised Europe under two climate scenarios current policy initiative (CPI) and long-term decarbonisation (CAP). Our results indicate that hydrogen could become a viable option already in 2030 – however a long-term CO₂ cap is needed to sustain the transition. In the CAP scenario the share of hydrogen in the final energy consumption of the transport and industry sectors reaches 5% and 6% by 2050. Low-carbon hydrogen production technologies dominate and electrolysers provide flexibility by absorbing electricity at times of high availability of intermittent sources. Hydrogen could also play a significant role in the industrial and transport sectors while the emergence of stationary hydrogen fuel cells for hydrogen-to-power would require significant cost improvements over and above those projected by the experts.

This paper addresses how a global climate target may influence iron and steel production technology deployment and scrap use. A global energy system model ETSAP-TIAM was used and a Scrap Availability Assessment Model (SAAM) was developed to analyse the relation between steel demand recycling and the availability of scrap and their implications for steel production technology choices. Steel production using recycled materials has a continuous growth and is likely to be a major route for steel production in the long run. However as the global average of in-use steel stock increases up to the current average stock of the industrialised economies global steel demand keeps growing and stagnates only after 2050. Due to high steel demand levels and scarcity of scrap more than 50% of the steel production in 2050 will still have to come from virgin materials. Hydrogen-based steel production could become a major technology option for production from virgin materials particularly in a scenario where Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is not available. Imposing a binding climate target will shift the crude steel price to approximately 500 USD per tonne in the year 2050 provided that CCS is available. However the increased prices are induced by CO₂ prices rather than inflated production costs. It is concluded that a global climate target is not likely to influence the use of scrap whereas it shall have an impact on the price of scrap. Finally the results indicate that energy efficiency improvements of current processes will only be sufficient to meet the climate target in combination with CCS. New innovative techniques with lower climate impact will be vital for mitigating climate change.

Expectations for energy storage are high but large-scale underground hydrogen storage in porous media (UHSP) remains largely untested. This article identifies and discusses the scientific challenges of hydrogen storage in porous media for safe and efficient large-scale energy storage to enable a global hydrogen economy. To facilitate hydrogen supply on the scales required for a zero-carbon future it must be stored in porous geological formations such as saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs. Large-scale UHSP offers the much-needed capacity to balance inter-seasonal discrepancies between demand and supply decouple energy generation from demand and decarbonise heating and transport supporting decarbonisation of the entire energy system. Despite the vast opportunity provided by UHSP the maturity is considered low and as such UHSP is associated with several uncertainties and challenges. Here the safety and economic impacts triggered by poorly understood key processes are identified such as the formation of corrosive hydrogen sulfide gas hydrogen loss due to the activity of microbes or permeability changes due to geochemical interactions impacting on the predictability of hydrogen flow through porous media. The wide range of scientific challenges facing UHSP are outlined to improve procedures and workflows for the hydrogen storage cycle from site selection to storage site operation. Multidisciplinary research including reservoir engineering chemistry geology and microbiology more complex than required for CH₄ or CO₂ storage is required in order to implement the safe efficient and much needed large-scale commercial deployment of UHSP.

Fuel cell electric vehicles convert chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity to power their motor. Since cars are used for transport only during a small part of the time energy stored in the on-board hydrogen tanks of fuel cell vehicles can be used to provide power when cars are parked. In this paper we present a community microgrid with photovoltaic systems wind turbines and fuel cell electric vehicles that are used to provide vehicle-to-grid power when renewable power generation is scarce. Excess renewable power generation is used to produce hydrogen which is stored in a refilling station. A central control system is designed to operate the system in such a way that the operational costs are minimized. To this end a hybrid model for the system is derived in which both the characteristics of the fuel cell vehicles and their traveling schedules are considered. The operational costs of the system are formulated considering the presence of uncertainty in the prediction of the load and renewable energy generation. A robust minmax model predictive control scheme is developed and finally a case study illustrates the performance of the designed system.

Delft University of Technology under its ‘‘Green Village” programme has an initiative to build a power plant (car parking lot) based on the fuel cells used in vehicles for motive power. It is a trigeneration system capable of producing electricity heat and hydrogen. It comprises three main zones: a hydrogen production zone a parking zone and a pump station zone. This study focuses mainly on the hydrogen production zone which assesses four different system designs in two different operation modes of the facility: Car as Power Plant (CaPP) mode corresponding to the open period of the facility which uses fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) as energy and water producers while parked; and Pump mode corresponding to the closed period which compresses the hydrogen and pumps to the vehicle’s fuel tank. These system designs differ by the reforming technology: the existing catalytic reformer (CR) and a solid oxide fuel cell operating as reformer (SOFCR); and the option of integrating a carbon capture and storage (CCS). Results reveal that the SOFCR unit significantly reduces the exergy destruction resulting in an improvement of efficiency over 20% in SOFCR-based system designs compared to CR-based system designs in both operation modes. It also mitigates the reduction in system efficiency by integration of a CCS unit achieving a value of 2% whereas in CR-based systems is 7–8%. The SOFCR-based system running in Pump mode achieves a trigeneration efficiency of 60%.

Globally the accelerating use of renewable energy sources enabled by increased efficiencies and reduced costs and driven by the need to mitigate the effects of climate change has significantly increased research in the areas of renewable energy production storage distribution and end-use. Central to this discussion is the use of hydrogen as a clean efficient energy vector for energy storage. This review by experts of Task 32 “Hydrogen-based Energy Storage” of the International Energy Agency Hydrogen TCP reports on the development over the last 6 years of hydrogen storage materials methods and techniques including electrochemical and thermal storage systems. An overview is given on the background to the various methods the current state of development and the future prospects. The following areas are covered; porous materials liquid hydrogen carriers complex hydrides intermetallic hydrides electro-chemical storage of energy thermal energy storage hydrogen energy systems and an outlook is presented for future prospects and research on hydrogen-based energy storage

Because of differences in irradiation levels it could be more efficient to produce solar electricity and hydrogen in North Africa and import these energy carriers to Europe rather than generating them at higher costs domestically in Europe. From a global climate change mitigation point of view exploiting such efficiencies can be profitable since they reduce overall renewable electricity capacity requirements. Yet the construction of this capacity in North Africa would imply costs associated with the infrastructure needed to transport electricity and hydrogen. The ensuing geopolitical dependencies may also raise energy security concerns. With the integrated assessment model TIAM-ECN we quantify the trade-off between costs and benefits emanating from establishing import-export links between Europe and North Africa for electricity and hydrogen. We show that for Europe a net price may have to be paid for exploiting such interlinkages even while they reduce the domestic investments for renewable electricity capacity needed to implement the EU’s Green Deal. For North African countries the potential net benefits thanks to trade revenues may build up to 50 billion €/yr in 2050. Despite fears over costs and security Europe should seriously consider an energy partnership with North Africa because trade revenues are likely to lead to positive employment income and stability effects in North Africa. Europe can indirectly benefit from such impacts.

Sustainable fuel-range hydrocarbons can be produced via the catalytic decarboxylation of biomass-derived carboxylic acids without the need for hydrogen addition. In this present study 5 wt% platinum on carbon (Pt/C) has been found to be an effective catalyst for hydrothermally decarboxylating butyric acid in order to produce mainly propane and carbon dioxide. However optimisation of the reaction conditions is required to minimise secondary reactions and increase hydrocarbon selectivity towards propane. To do this reactions using the catalyst with varying parameters such as reaction temperatures residence times feedstock loading and bulk catalyst loading were carried out in a batch reactor. The highest yield of propane obtained was 47 wt% (close to the theoretical decarboxylation yield of 50 wt% on butyric acid basis) corresponding to a 96% hydrocarbon selectivity towards propane. The results showed that the optimum parameters to produce the highest yield of propane from the range investigated were 0.5 g butyric acid (0.57 M aqueous solution) 1.0 g Pt/C (50 mg Pt content) at 300 °C for 1 h. The reusability of the catalyst was also investigated which showed little or no loss of catalytic activity after four cycles. This work has shown that Pt/C is a suitable and potentially hydrothermally stable heterogeneous catalyst for making biopropane a major component of bioLPG from aqueous butyric acid solutions which can be sourced from bio-derived feedstocks via acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) fermentation.

Hydrogen is crucial to Europe’s transformation into a climate-neutral continent by mid-century. This study concludes that the European Union (EU) and UK could see a hydrogen demand of 2300 TWh (2150-2750 TWh) by 2050. This corresponds to 20-25% of EU and UK final energy consumption by 2050. Achieving this future role of hydrogen depends on many factors including market frameworks legislation technology readiness and consumer choice.

The document can be download on their website

The first applications of hydrogen in a natural gas grid will be the admixing of low concentrations in an existing distribution grid. For easy quality and process control it is essential to monitor the hydrogen concentration in real time preferably using cost effective monitoring solutions. In this paper we introduce the use of a platinum based hydrogen sensor that can accurately (at 0.1 vol%) and reversibly monitor the concentration of hydrogen in a carrier gas. This carrier gas that can be nitrogen methane or natural gas has no influence on the accuracy of the hydrogen detection. The hydrogen sensor consists of an interdigitated electrode on a chip coated with a platinum nanocomposite layer that interacts with the gas. This chip can be easily added to a gas sensor for natural gas and biogas that was already developed in previous research. Just by the addition of an extra chip we extended the applicability of the natural gas sensor to hydrogen admixing. The feasibility of the sensor was demonstrated in our own (TNO) laboratory and at a field test location of the HyDeploy program at Keele University in the U.K

In this review we provide a short overview of the Molecular Dynamics (MD) method and how it can be used to model the water splitting process in photoelectrochemical hydrogen production. We cover classical non-reactive and reactive MD techniques as well as multiscale extensions combining classical MD with quantum chemical and continuum methods. Selected examples of MD investigations of various aqueous semiconductor interfaces with a special focus on TiO₂ are discussed. Finally we identify gaps in the current state-of-the-art where further developments will be needed for better utilization of MD techniques in the field of water splitting.

The utilization of the captured CO2 as a carbon source for the production of energy storage media offers a technological solution for overcoming crucial issues in current energy systems. Solar energy production generally does not match with energy demand because of its intermittent and non-programmable nature entailing the adoption of storage technologies. Hydrogen constitutes a chemical storage for renewable electricity if it is produced by water electrolysis and is also the key reactant for CO2 methanation (Sabatier reaction). The utilization of CO2 as a feedstock for producing methane contributes to alleviate global climate changes and sequestration related problems. The produced methane is a carbon neutral gas that fits into existing infrastructure and allows issues related to the aforementioned intermittency and non-programmability of solar energy to be overcome. In this paper an experimental apparatus composed of an electrolyzer and a tubular fixed bed reactor is built and used to produce methane via Sabatier reaction. The objective of the experimental campaign is the evaluation of the process performance and a comparison with other CO2 valorization paths such as methanol production. The investigated pressure range was 2–20 bar obtaining a methane volume fraction in outlet gaseous mixture of 64.75% at 8 bar and 97.24% at 20 bar with conversion efficiencies of respectively 84.64% and 99.06%. The methanol and methane processes were compared on the basis of an energy parameter defined as the spent energy/stored energy. It is higher for the methanol process (0.45) with respect to the methane production process (0.41–0.43) which has a higher energy storage capability.

In this analysis life cycle environmental burdens and total costs of ownership (TCO) of current (2017) and future (2040) passenger cars with different powertrain configurations are compared. For all vehicle configurations probability distributions are defined for all performance parameters. Using these a Monte Carlo based global sensitivity analysis is performed to determine the input parameters that contribute most to overall variability of results. To capture the systematic effects of the energy transition future electricity scenarios are deeply integrated into the ecoinvent life cycle assessment background database. With this integration not only the way how future electric vehicles are charged is captured but also how future vehicles and batteries are produced. If electricity has a life cycle carbon content similar to or better than a modern natural gas combined cycle powerplant full powertrain electrification makes sense from a climate point of view and in many cases also provides reductions in TCO. In general vehicles with smaller batteries and longer lifetime distances have the best cost and climate performance. If a very large driving range is required or clean electricity is not available hybrid powertrain and compressed natural gas vehicles are good options in terms of both costs and climate change impacts. Alternative powertrains containing large batteries or fuel cells are the most sensitive to changes in the future electricity system as their life cycles are more electricity intensive. The benefits of these alternative drivetrains are strongly linked to the success of the energy transition: the more the electricity sector is decarbonized the greater the benefit of electrifying passenger vehicles.

The paper presents an overview of the main achievements of the internal project InsHyde of the HySafe NoE. The scope of InsHyde was to investigate realistic small-medium indoor hydrogen leaks and provide recommendations for the safe use/storage of indoor hydrogen systems. Additionally InsHyde served to integrate proposals from HySafe work packages and existing external research projects towards a common effort. Following a state of the art review InsHyde activities expanded into experimental and simulation work. Dispersion experiments were performed using hydrogen and helium at the INERIS gallery facility to evaluate short and long term dispersion patterns in garage like settings. A new facility (GARAGE) was built at CEA and dispersion experiments were performed there using helium to evaluate hydrogen dispersion under highly controlled conditions. In parallel combustion experiments were performed by FZK to evaluate the maximum amount of hydrogen that could be safely ignited indoors. The combustion experiments were extended later on by KI at their test site by considering the ignition of larger amounts of hydrogen in obstructed environments outdoors. An evaluation of the performance of commercial hydrogen detectors as well as inter-lab calibration work was jointly performed by JRC INERIS and BAM. Simulation work was as intensive as the experimental work with participation from most of the partners. It included pre-test simulations validation of the available CFD codes against previously performed experiments with significant CFD code inter-comparisons as well as CFD application to investigate specific realistic scenarios. Additionally an evaluation of permeation issues was performed by VOLVO CEA NCSRD and UU by combining theoretical computational and experimental approaches with the results being presented to key automotive regulations and standards groups. Finally the InsHyde project concluded with a public document providing initial guidance on the use of hydrogen in confined spaces.

This paper introduces a risk-based methodology for hydrogen refuelling stations. Momentarily four stations are present in the Netherlands. This number is expected to increase to around twenty in the next years. For these stations a quantitative risk analysis (QRA) must be carried out to account for spatial planning. The presented method identifies the loss of containment scenarios and failure frequencies. Additionally the results of this study may be used in legislative context in the form of fixed generic safety distances. Using the risk analysis tool Safeti-NL safety distances are determined for three different kinds of hydrogen refuelling stations distinguished by the supply method of the hydrogen. For the hydrogen refuelling stations a maximum safety distance of 35 m is calculated. However despite the relatively small safety distances the maximum effect distances (distance to 1% lethality) can be very large especially for stations with a supply and storage of liquid hydrogen. The research was overseen by an advisory committee which also provided technical information on the refuelling stations.

Hydrogen technologies are expected to play a key role in implementing the transition from a fossil fuel- based to a more sustainable lower-carbon energy system. To facilitate their widespread deployment the safe operation and hydrogen systems needs to be ensured together with the evaluation of the associated risk.<br/>HIAD has been designed to be a collaborative and communicative web-based information platform holding high quality information of accidents and incidents related to hydrogen technologies. The main goal of HIAD was to become not only a standard industrial accident database but also an open communication platform suitable for safety lessons learned and risk communication as well as a potential data source for risk assessment; it has been set up to improve the understanding of hydrogen unintended events to identify measures and strategies to avoid incidents/accidents and to reduce the consequence if an accident occurs.<br/>In order to achieve that goal the data collection is characterized by a significant degree of detail and information about recorded events (e.g. causes physical consequences lesson learned). Data are related not only to real incident and accidents but also to hazardous situations.<br/>The concept of a hydrogen accident database was generated in the frame of the project HySafe an EC co-funded NoE of the 6th Frame Work Programme. HIAD was built by EC-JRC and populated by many HySafe partners. After the end of the project the database has been maintained and populated by JRC with publicly available events. The original idea was to provide a tool also for quantitative risk assessment able to conduct simple analyses of the events; unfortunately that goal could not be reached because of a lack of required statistics: it was not possible to establish a link with potential event providers coming from private sector not willing to share information considered confidential. Starting from June 2016 JRC has been developing a new version of the database (i.e. HIAD 2.0); the structure of the database and the web-interface have been redefined and simplified resulting in a streamlined user interface compared to the previous version of HIAD. The new version is mainly focused to facilitate the sharing of lessons learned and other relevant information related to hydrogen technology; the database will be public and the events will be anonymized. The database will contribute to improve the safety awareness fostering the users to benefit from the experiences of others as well as to share information from their own experiences.

During the filling of hydrogen tanks high temperatures can be generated inside the vessel because of the gas compression while during the emptying low temperatures can be reached because of the gas expansion. The design temperature range goes from −40 °C to 85 °C. Temperatures outside that range could affect the mechanical properties of the tank materials. CFD analyses of the filling and emptying processes have been performed in the HyTransfer project. To assess the accuracy of the CFD model the simulation results have been compared with new experimental data for different filling and emptying strategies. The comparison between experiments and simulations is shown for the temperatures of the gas inside the tank for the temperatures at the interface between the liner and the composite material and for the temperatures on the external surface of the vessel.

On October 16-17 2012 the International Association for Hydrogen Safety (HySafe) in cooperation with the Institute for Energy and Transport of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC IET Petten) held a two-day workshop dedicated to Hydrogen Safety Research Priorities. The workshop was hosted by Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) in Berlin Germany. The main idea of the Workshop was to bring together stakeholders who can address the existing knowledge gaps in the area of the hydrogen safety including identification and prioritization of such gaps from the standpoint of scientific knowledge both experimental and theoretical including numerical. The experience highlighting these gaps which was obtained during both practical applications (industry) and risk assessment should serve as reference point for further analysis. The program included two sections: knowledge gaps as they are addressed by industry and knowledge gaps and state-of-the-art by research. In the current work the main results of the workshop are summarized and analysed.

A benchmarking exercise on quantitative risk assessment (QRA) methodologies has been conducted within the project HyQRA under the framework of the European Network of Excellence (NoE) HySafe. The aim of the exercise was basically twofold: (i) to identify the differences and similarities in approaches in a QRA and their results for a hydrogen installation between nine participating partners representing a broad spectrum of background in QRA culture and history and (ii) to identify knowledge gaps in the various steps and parameters underlying the risk quantification. In the first step a reference case was defined: a virtual hydrogen refuelling station (HRS) in virtual surroundings comprising housing school shops and other vulnerable objects. All partners were requested to conduct a QRA according to their usual approach and experience. Basically participants were free to define representative release cases to apply models and frequency assessments according their own methodology and to present risk according to their usual format. To enable inter-comparison a required set of results data was prescribed like distances to specific thermal radiation levels from fires and distances to specific overpressure levels. Moreover complete documentation of assumptions base data and references was to be reported. It was not surprising that a wide range of results was obtained both in the applied approaches as well as in the quantitative outcomes and conclusions. This made it difficult to identify exactly which assumptions and parameters were responsible for the differences in results as the paper will show. A second phase was defined in which the QRA was determined by a more limited number of release cases (scenarios). The partners in the project agreed to assess specific scenarios in order to identify the differences in consequence assessment approaches. The results of this phase provide a better understanding of the influence of modelling assumptions and limitations on the eventual conclusions with regard to risk to on-site people and to the off-site public. This paper presents the results and conclusions of both stages of the exercise.

This work presents the results of the Standard Benchmark Exercise Problem (SBEP) V20 of Work Package 6 (WP6) of HySafe Network of Excellence (NoE) co-funded by the European Commission in the frame of evaluating the quality and suitability of codes models and user practices by comparative assessments of code results. The benchmark problem SBEP-V20 covers release scenarios that were experimentally investigated in the past using helium as a substitute to hydrogen. The aim of the experimental investigations was to determine the ventilation requirements for parking hydrogen fuelled vehicles in residential garages. Helium was released under the vehicle for 2 h with 7.200 l/h flow rate. The leak rate corresponded to a 20% drop of the peak power of a 50 kW fuel cell vehicle. Three double vent garage door geometries are considered in this numerical investigation. In each case the vents are located at the top and bottom of the garage door. The vents vary only in height. In the first case the height of the vents is 0.063 m in the second 0.241 m and in the third 0.495 m. Four HySafe partners participated in this benchmark. The following CFD packages with the respective models were applied to simulate the experiments: ADREA-HF using k–ɛ model by partner NCSRD FLACS using k–ɛ model by partner DNV FLUENT using k–ɛ model by partner UPM and CFX using laminar and the low-Re number SST model by partner JRC. This study compares the results predicted by the partners to the experimental measurements at four sensor locations inside the garage with an attempt to assess and validate the performance of the different numerical approaches.

Ammonia may be one of the energy carriers in the hydrogen economy. Although research has mostly focused on electrochemical ammonia synthesis this however remains a scientific challenge. In the current article we discuss the feasibility of single-pass thermochemical ammonia synthesis as an alternative to the high-temperature high-pressure Haber-Bosch synthesis loop. We provide an overview of recently developed low temperature ammonia synthesis catalysts as well as an overview of solid ammonia sorbents. We show that the low temperature low pressure single-pass ammonia synthesis process can produce ammonia at a lower cost than the Haber-Bosch synthesis loop for small-scale ammonia synthesis (<40 t-NH₃ d⁻¹).

In the context of the French DIMITRHY project ANR-08-PANH006 experiments have been carried out to measure helium injections in a cubic 1 m3 box - GAMELAN in a reproducible and quantitative manner. For the present work we limit ourselves to the unique configuration of a closed box with a small hole at its base to prevent overpressure. This case leads to enough difficulties of modelisations to deserve our attention. The box is initially filled with air and injections of helium through a tube of diameter 20 mm is operated. The box is instrumented with catharometres to measure the helium volume concentration within an accuracy better than 0.1%. We present the CFD (Fluent and CASTEM ANSYS-CFX and ADREA-HF) calculations results obtained by 5 different teams participating to the benchmark in the following situation: the case of a plume release of helium in a closed box (4NL/min). Parts of the CFD simulations were performed in the European co-funded project HyIndoor others were performed in the French ANR-08-PANH006 DimitrHy project.

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) currently have the challenge of high CAPEX mainly associated to the fuel cell. This study investigates strategies to promote FCEV deployment and overcome this initial high cost by combining a detailed simulation model of the passenger transport sector with an energy system model. The focus is on an energy system with 95% CO2 reduction by 2050. Soft-linking by taking the powertrain shares by country from the simulation model is preferred because it considers aspects such as car performance reliability and safety while keeping the cost optimization to evaluate the impact on the rest of the system. This caused a 14% increase in total cost of car ownership compared to the cost before soft-linking. Gas reforming combined with CO₂ storage can provide a low-cost hydrogen source for FCEV in the first years of deployment. Once a lower CAPEX for FCEV is achieved a higher hydrogen cost from electrolysis can be afforded. The policy with the largest impact on FCEV was a purchase subsidy of 5 k€ per vehicle in the 2030–2034 period resulting in 24.3 million FCEV (on top of 67 million without policy) sold up to 2050 with total subsidies of 84 bln€. 5 bln€ of R&D incentives in the 2020–2024 period increased the cumulative sales up to 2050 by 10.5 million FCEV. Combining these two policies with infrastructure and fuel subsidies for 2030–2034 can result in 76 million FCEV on the road by 2050 representing more than 25% of the total car stock. Country specific incentives split of demand by distance or shift across modes of transport were not included in this study.

The transition to a more sustainable personal transportation sector requires the widespread adoption of electric vehicles. However a dominant design has not yet emerged and a standards battle is being fought between battery and hydrogen fuel cell powered electric vehicles. The aim of this paper is to analyze which factors are most likely to influence the outcome of this battle thereby reducing the uncertainty in the industry regarding investment decisions in either of these technologies. We examine the relevant factors for standard dominance and apply a multi-criteria decision-making method best worst method to determine the relative importance of these factors. The results indicate that the key factors include technological superiority compatibility and brand reputation and credibility. Our findings show that battery powered electric vehicles have a greater chance of winning the standards battle. This study contributes to theory by providing further empirical evidence that the outcome of standards battles can be explained and predicted by applying factors for standard success. We conclude that technology dominance in the automotive industry is mostly driven by technological characteristics and characteristics of the format supporter.

Several approaches have been used in the past to model the source of a high pressure under-expanded jet such as the computationally expensive resolution of the jet shock structure and the simpler pseudo-source or notional nozzle approaches. In each approach assumptions are made introducing inaccuracies in the CFD calculations. This work assesses the effect of different source modelling approaches on the accuracy of CFD calculations by comparing simulation results to experimental data of the axial distribution of the flow velocity and H2 concentration.

At the JRC-IET on-board hydrogen tanks have been subjected to filling–emptying cycles to investigate their long-term mechanical and thermal behaviour and their safety performance. The local temperature history inside the tanks has been measured and compared with the temperatures outside and at the tank metallic bosses which is the measurement location identified by some standards. The outcome of these activities is a set of experimental data which will be made publicly available as reference for safety studies and validation of computational fluid dynamics.

Hydrogen energy applications often require that systems are used indoors (e.g. industrial trucks for materials handling in a warehouse facility fuel cells located in a room or hydrogen stored and distributed from a gas cabinet). It may also be necessary or desirable to locate some hydrogen system components/equipment inside indoor or outdoor enclosures for security or safety reasons to isolate them from the end-user and the public or from weather conditions.<br/>Using of hydrogen in confined environments requires detailed assessments of hazards and associated risks including potential risk prevention and mitigation features. The release of hydrogen can potentially lead to the accumulation of hydrogen and the formation of a flammable hydrogen-air mixture or can result in jet-fires. Within Hyindoor European Project carried out for the EU Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking safety design guidelines and engineering tools have been developed to prevent and mitigate hazardous consequences of hydrogen release in confined environments. Three main areas are considered: Hydrogen release conditions and accumulation vented deflagrations jet fires and including under-ventilated flame regimes (e.g. extinguishment or oscillating flames and steady burns). Potential RCS recommendations are also identified.

Two electrolysis technologies fed with renewable energy sources are promising for the production of CO₂-free hydrogen and enabling the transition to a hydrogen society: Alkaline Electrolyte (AE) and Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM). However limited information exists on the potential environmental impacts of these promising sustainable innovations when operating on a large-scale. To fill this gap the performance of AE and PEM systems is compared using ex-ante Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technology analysis and exploratory scenarios for which a refined methodology has been developed to study the effects of implementing large-scale sustainable hydrogen production systems. Ex-ante LCA allows modelling the environmental impacts of hydrogen production exploratory scenario analysis allows modelling possible upscaling effects at potential future states of hydrogen production and use in vehicles in the Netherlands in 2050. A bridging tool for mapping the technological field has been created enabling the combination of quantitative LCAs with qualitative scenarios. This tool also enables diversity for exploring multiple sets of visions. The main results from the paper show with an exception for the “ozone depletion” impact category (1) that large-scale AE and PEM systems have similar environmental impacts with variations lower than 7% in all impact categories (2) that the contribution of the electrolyser is limited to 10% of all impact categories results and (3) that the origin of the electricity is the largest contributor to the environmental impact contributing to more than 90% in all impact categories even when renewable energy sources are used. It is concluded that the methodology was applied successfully and provides a solid basis for an ex-ante assessment framework that can be applied to emerging technological systems.

Mg attracts much research interest as anode material for Ni-MH batteries thanks to its lightweight cost-effectiveness and high theoretical capacity (2200 mA h g⁻¹). However its practical application is tremendously challenged by the poor hydrogen sorption kinetics passivation from aggressive aqueous electrolytes and insulating nature of MgH₂. Mg-based alloys exhibit enhanced hydrogen sorption kinetics and electrical conductivity but significant amount of costly transition metal elements are required. In this work we have for the first time utilized non-alloyed but catalyzed Mg as anode for Ni-MH batteries. 5 mol.% TiF3 was added to nanosized Mg for accelerating the hydrogen sorption kinetics. Several strategies for preventing the problematic passivation of Mg have been studied including protective encapsulation of the electrode and utilizing room-temperature/high-temperature ionic liquids and an alkaline polymer membrane as working electrolyte. Promising electrochemical performance has been achieved in this Mg–TiF₃ composite anode based Ni-MH batteries with room for further improvements.

The future energy system is widely expected to show increasing levels of integration across differing energy carriers. Electricity hydrogen methane and heat systems may become increasingly interdependent due to coupling through conversion and hybrid energy technologies. Market parties network operators policy makers and regulators require tools to capture implications of possible techno-economic and institutional developments in one system for the operation of others. In this article we provide an integrated electricity hydrogen and methane systems modelling framework focusing on interdependencies between them. The proposed integrated electricity and (renewable) gas system model is a market equilibrium model with hourly price and volume interactions considering ramp rates of conventional units variability of intermittent renewables conversion transport as well as storage of electricity hydrogen and methane. The integrated model is formulated as a linear program under the assumption of perfect competition. As proof-of-concept the model has been applied to a test case consisting of 34 electricity nodes 19 hydrogen nodes and 22 methane nodes reflecting the regional governance scenario in the Dutch Infrastructure Outlook 2050 study. The case study also includes different sensitivity analyses with regard to variable renewable capacity energy demand and biomass prices to illustrate model response to perturbations of its main drivers. This article demonstrates that the interweaving of electricity hydrogen and methane systems can provide the required flexibility in the future energy system.

The influence of the initial tank temperature on the evolution of the internal gas temperature during the refuelling of on-board hydrogen tanks is investigated in this paper. Two different types of tanks four different fuel delivery temperatures (from ambient temperature refuelling to a pre-cooled hydrogen at −40 °C) several filling rates and initial pressures are considered. It has been found that the final gas temperature increases linearly with the increase of the initial tank temperature while the temperature increase (ΔT) and the final state of charge (SOC) decrease linearly with increasing the initial temperature. This dependency has been found to be larger on type III than on type IV tank and larger the larger the initial pressure. Additionally CFD simulations are performed to better understand the role of the relevant phenomena on the gas temperature histories e.g. gas compression gas mixing and heat transfer. By comparing the results of calculations with adiabatic and diathermal tank walls the effect of the initial gas temperature has been separated from the effect of the initial wall temperature on the process.

This paper authored by eleven gas infrastructure companies and supported by Guidehouse describes how a dedicated hydrogen infrastructure can be created in

a significant part of the EU between 2030 and 2040 requiring work to start during the 2020s. The hydrogen infrastructure as proposed in this paper fits well with the ambitions of the EU Hydrogen Strategy and the Energy System Integration Strategy plus it aligns well with the goals of the recently announced Clean Hydrogen Alliance to scale up hydrogen enabled by hydrogen transport. Hydrogen clearly gains momentum and this paper aims to provide a contribution towards accelerating a large scale-up of hydrogen by enabling its transport from supply to demand across Europe.

This paper analyses the likely routes across Europe by 2030 2035 and 2040. The included maps show the suggested topology of hydrogen pipelines in ten European countries: Germany France Italy Spain the Netherlands Belgium Czech Republic Denmark Sweden and Switzerland.

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Transitioning from fossil fuels to sustainable and green energy sources in mobile applications is a difficult challenge and demands sustained and highly multidisciplinary efforts in R&D. Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) offer several advantages over more conventional energy storage solutions but have not been yet demonstrated at scale. Herein we describe the development of an integrated and compact 25 kW formic acid-to-power system by a team of BSc and MSc students. We highlight a number of key engineering challenges encountered during scale-up of the technology and discuss several aspects commonly overlooked by academic researchers. Conclusively we provide a critical outlook and suggest a number of developmental areas currently inhibiting further implementation of the technology.

Reliable and effective sensors for the accurate detection of hydrogen concentrations in air are essential for the safe operation of fuel cells hydrogen fuelled systems (e.g. vehicles) and hydrogen production distribution and storage facilities. The present paper describes the activity on-going at JRC for the establishment of a facility that can be used for testing and validating the performance of hydrogen sensors under a range of conditions representative of those to be encountered in service. Potential aspects to be investigated in relation to the sensors performances are the influence of temperature humidity and pressure (simulating variations in altitude) the sensitivity to target gas and the cross sensitivity to other gases/vapours the reaction and recovery time and the sensors’ lifetime. The facility set up at JRC for the execution of these tests is described including the program for its commissioning. The results of a preliminary test are presented and discussed as an example.

In this paper a case of hydrogen release in a typical research laboratory for the characterisation of hydrogen solid-state storage materials has been considered. The laboratory is equipped with various testing equipments for the assessment of hydrogen capacity in materials typically in the 1 to 200 bar pressure range and temperatures up to 500°C. Hydrogen is delivered at 200 bar by a 50 l gas bottle and a compressor located outside the laboratory. The safety measures directly related to hydrogen hazard consist in a distributed ventilation of the laboratory and air extraction fume hoods located on top of each instrument. Goal of this work is the modelling of hydrogen accidental release in a real laboratory case in order to provide a more fundamental basis for the laboratory safety design and assist the decision on the number and position of the safety sensors. The computational fluid dynamics code (CFD) ANSYS-CFX has been selected in order to perform the numerical investigations. Two basic accidental release scenarios have been assumed both at 200 bar:  a major leak corresponding to a guillotine breaking of the hydrogen distribution line and a smaller leak typical for a not properly tight junction.

Interest in the future is not new. Economic constraints and acceptability considerations of today compel decision-makers from industry and authorities to speculate on possible safety risks originating from a hydrogen economy developed in the future. Tools that support thinking about the long-term consequences of today's actions and resulting technical systems are usually prognostic based on data from past performance of past or current systems. It has become convention to assume that the performance of future systems in future environments can be accommodated in the uncertainties of such prognostic models resulting from sensitivity studies. This paper presents an alternative approach to modelling future systems based on narratives about the future. Such narratives based on the actions and interactions of individual "agents" are powerful means for addressing anxiety about engaging the imagination in order to prepare for events that are likely to occur detect critical conditions and to thus achieve desirable outcomes. This is the methodological base of Agent-Based Models (ABM) and this paper will present the approach discuss its strengths and weaknesses and present a preliminary application to modelling safety risks related to energy scenarios in a possible future hydrogen economy.

This paper presents a compilation of the results supplied by HySafe partners participating in the Standard Benchmark Exercise Problem (SBEP) V2 which is based on an experiment on hydrogen combustion that is first described. A list of the results requested from participants is also included. The main characteristics of the models used for the calculations are compared in a very succinct way by using tables. The comparison between results together with the experimental data when available is made through a series of graphs. The results show quite good agreement with the experimental data. The calculations have demonstrated to be sensitive to computational domain size and far field boundary condition.

Long-haul heavy-duty vehicles including trucks and coaches contribute to a substantial portion of the modern-day European carbon footprint and pose a major challenge in emissions reduction due to their energy-intensive usage. Depending on the hydrogen fuel source the use of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) for long-haul applications has shown significant potential in reducing road freight CO2 emissions until the possible maturity of future long-distance battery-electric mobility. Fuel cell heavy-duty (HD) propulsion presents some specific characteristics advantages and operating constraints along with the notable possibility of gains in powertrain efficiency and usability through improved system design and intelligent onboard energy and thermal management. This paper provides an overview of the FCEV powertrain topology suited for long-haul HD applications their operating limitations cooling requirements waste heat recovery techniques state-of-the-art in powertrain control energy and thermal management strategies and over-the-air route data based predictive powertrain management including V2X connectivity. A case study simulation analysis of an HD 40-tonne FCEV truck is also presented focusing on the comparison of powertrain losses and energy expenditures in different subsystems while running on VECTO Regional delivery and Long-haul cycles. The importance of hydrogen fuel production pathways onboard storage approaches refuelling and safety standards and fleet management is also discussed. Through a comprehensive review of the H2 fuel cell powertrain technology intelligent energy management thermal management requirements and strategies and challenges in hydrogen production storage and refuelling this article aims at helping stakeholders in the promotion and integration of H2 FCEV technology towards road freight decarbonisation.

The current focus on the massive CO₂ reduction highlights the need for the rapid development of technology for the production storage transportation and distribution of renewable energy. In addition to electricity we need other forms of energy carriers that are more suitable for energy storage and transportation. Hydrogen is one of the main candidates for this purpose since it can be produced from solar or wind energy and then stored; once needed it can be converted back to electricity using fuel cells. Another important aspect of future energy systems is sector coupling where different sectors e.g. mobility and energy work together to provide better services. In such an integrated system electric vehicles – both battery and hydrogen-based fuel cell – can provide when parked electricity services such as backup power and balancing; when driving they produce no emissions. In this paper we present the concept design and energy management of such an integrated energy and mobility system in a real-life environment at the Shell Technology Centre in Amsterdam. Our results show that storage using hydrogen and salt caverns is much cheaper than using large battery storage systems. We also show that the integration of electric vehicles into the electricity network is technically and economically feasible and that they can provide a flexible energy buffer. Ultimately the results of this study show that using both electricity and hydrogen as energy carriers can create a more flexible reliable and cheaper energy system at an office building.

Due to its environmental impact the mobility system is increasingly under pressure. The challenges to cope with climate change air quality depleting fossil resources imply the need for a transition of the current mobility system towards a more sustainable one. Expectations and visions have been identified as crucial in the guidance of such transitions and more specifically of actor strategies. Still it remained unclear why the actors involved in transition activities appear to change their strategies frequently and suddenly. The empirical analysis of the expectations and strategies of three actors in the field of hydrogen and fuel cell technology indicates that changing actor strategies can be explained by rather volatile expectations related to different levels. Our case studies of the strategies of two large car manufacturers and the German government demonstrate that the car manufacturers refer strongly to expectations about the future regime while expectations related to the socio-technical landscape level appear to be crucial for the strategy of the German government.