Applications & Pathways

For centuries fossil fuels have been the primary energy source but their unchecked use has led to significant environmental and economic challenges that now shape the global energy landscape. The combustion of these fuels releases greenhouse gases which are critical contributors to the acceleration of climate change resulting in severe consequences for both the environment and human health. Therefore this article examines the potential of hydrogen as a sustainable alternative energy source capable of mitigating these climate impacts. It explores the properties of hydrogen with particular emphasis on its application in industrial burners and furnaces underscoring its clean combustion and high energy density in comparison to fossil fuels and also examines hydrogen production through thermochemical and electrochemical methods covering green gray blue and turquoise pathways. It discusses storage and transportation challenges highlighting methods like compression liquefaction chemical carriers (e.g. ammonia) and transport via pipelines and vehicles. Hydrogen combustion mechanisms and optimized burner and furnace designs are explored along with the environmental benefits of lower emissions contrasted with economic concerns like production and infrastructure costs. Additionally industrial and energy applications safety concerns and the challenges of large-scale adoption are addressed presenting hydrogen as a promising yet complex alternative to fossil fuels.

To meet environmental goals while maintaining economic competitiveness worldwide ports have increased the amount of renewable energy production and have focused in optimizing performances and energy efficiency. However carbon-neutral operation of industrial port areas (IPA) is challenging and requires the decarbonization of industrial processes and heavy transport systems. This study proposes a comprehensive review of decarbon ization strategies for IPA with a particular focus on the role that green hydrogen could play when used as renewable energy carrier. Much information on existing and future technologies was also derived from the analysis of 74 projects (existing and planned) in 36 IPAs 80 % of which are in Europe concerning hydrogenbased decarbonization strategies. The overall review shows that engine operation of ships at berth are respon sible of more than 70 % of emissions in ports. Therefore onshore power supply (OPS) seems to be one of the main strategies to reduce port pollution. Nevertheless OPS powered by hydrogen is not today easily achievable. By overcoming the current cost-related and regulation barriers hydrogen can also be used for the import/export of green energy and the decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors. The technical and economic data regarding hydrogen-based technologies and strategies highlighted in this paper are useful for further research in the field of definition and development of decarbonization strategies in the IPA.

To expedite the development of the infrastructural expansion for hydrogen applications the research project “THEWA” was founded. Within this project the development of hydrogen-refueling stations is being advanced so that the hydrogen strategy for mobility in Germany can move forward. One development point of the project is to develop an evaluation model that recommends a concept for hydrogen-refueling stations for initial individual situations. In this work an evaluation method is developed that provides an appropriate recommendation. For this purpose basics such as the general structure of hydrogen-refueling stations their classification into functional areas and alreadyexisting evaluation methods for multi-criteria decisions are shown. The method for the evaluation of hydrogen-refueling stations will be developed in a component-based manner for which a selection of influencing factors of hydrogen-refueling stations will be explained and categorized. With the help of an expert workshop these are scaled so that the result is an evaluation method based on an expert assessment and the consideration of individual customer requirements. In addition the method is implemented in a tool so that it can be used more easily.

Renewable hydrogen is emerging as the key to a sustainable energy transition with multiple applications and uses. In the field of transport in addition to fuel cell vehicles it is necessary to develop an extensive network of hydrogen refueling stations (hereafter HRSs). The characteristics and properties of hydrogen make ensuring the safe operation of these facilities a crucial element for their successful deployment and implementation. This paper shows the outcomes of an analysis of hydrogen incidents and accidents considering their potential application to HRSs. For this purpose the HIAD 2.0 was reviewed and a total of 224 events that could be repeated in any of the major industrial processes related to hydrogen refueling stations were analyzed. This analysis was carried out using a mixed methodology of quantitative and qualitative techniques considering the following hydrogen value chain: production storage delivery and industrial use. The results provide general information segmented by event frequency damage classes and failure typology. The analysis shows the main processes of the value chain allow the identification of key aspects for the safety management of refueling facilities.

Hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) can cause a significant fraction of the hydrogen refueling cost. The main cost contributor is the currently used mechanical compressor. Electrochemical hydrogen compression (EHC) has recently been proposed as an alternative. However its optimal integration in an HRS has yet to be investigated. In this study we compare the performance of a gaseous HRS equipped with different compressors. First we develop dynamic models of three process configurations which differ in the compressor technology: mechanical vs. electrochemical vs. combined. Then the design and operation of the compressors are optimized by solving multi-stage dynamic optimization problems. The optimization results show that the three configurations lead to comparable hydrogen dispensing costs because the electrochemical configuration exhibits lower capital cost but higher energy demand and thus operating cost than the mechanical configuration. The combined configuration is a trade-off with intermediate capital and operating cost.

Shipping corridors act as the arteries of the global economy. The maritime shipping sector is also a major source of greenhouse gas emissions accounting for 2.9% of the global total. The international nature of the shipping sector combined with issues surrounding the use of battery technology means that these emissions are considered difficult to eliminate. This work explores the transition to renewable fuels by examining the use of electrofuels (in the form of liquid hydrogen methane methanol ammonia and Fischer-Tropsch fuel) to decarbonise large container ships from a technical economic and environmental perspective. For an equivalent range to current fossil fuel vessels the cargo capacity of vessels powered by electrofuels decreases by between 3% and 16% depending on the fuel of choice due to the lower energy density compared with conventional marine fuels. If vessel operators are willing to sacrifice range cargo space can be preserved by downsizing onboard energy storage which necessitates more frequent refuelling. For a realistic green hydrogen cost of €3.5/kg (10.5 €c/kWh) in 2030 the use of electrofuels in the shipping sector results in an increase in the total cost of ownership of between 124% and 731% with liquid hydrogen in an internal combustion engine being the most expensive and methanol in an internal combustion engine resulting in the lowest cost increase. Despite this we find that the increased transportation costs of some consumer goods to be relatively small adding for example less than €3.27 to the cost of a laptop. In general fuels which do not require cryogenic storage and can be used in internal combustion engines result in the lowest cost increases. For policymakers reducing the environmental impact of the shipping sector is a key priority. The use of liquid hydrogen which results in the largest cost increase offers a 70% reduction in GHG emissions for an electricity carbon intensity of 80 gCO2e/ kWh which is the greatest reduction of all fuels assessed in this work. A minimum carbon price of €400/tCO2 is required to allow these fuels to reach parity with conventional shipping operations. To meet European Union emissions reductions targets electricity with an emissions intensity below 40 gCO2e/kWh is required which suggests that for electrofuels to be truly sustainable direct connection with a source of renewable electricity is required.

The report addresses the environmental challenges faced by European sea ports and aims to provide guidance to smaller ports for improving their environmental performance while achieving sustainability goals through experiences gained by implementing noteworthy green initiatives in practice. Larger ports possess significant advantages in terms of financial resources risk tolerance and organisational capacity. They often have the means to invest in innovative solutions and actively participate in research and development projects leading to co-funded pilot implementation of green initiatives. They typically have more skilled personnel stronger influence and stakeholder leverage which position them better to lead the way in sustainability efforts. Finally larger ports often form robust collaborations to drive collective action towards sustainable goals. Smaller ports face unique challenges stemming from typically limited resources and risk aversion. They often prioritise mature solutions relying on tested practices to mitigate potential risks. They may lack internal expertise requiring guidance and capacity-building programmes to navigate the selection and implementation of green practices. Also they require financial and technical support particularly as they may underutilise available funding mechanisms and have limited participation in R&D programmes. They may benefit from partnerships with other ports and stakeholders to create synergies and gain experience from their lessons learned to boost their capacity to implement green practices

Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS) are a key infrastructure to the successful deployment of hydrogen mobility. Their cost-effectiveness will represent an increasingly crucial issue considering the foreseen growth of vehicle fleets from few captive fleets to large-scale penetration of hydrogen vehicles. In this context a detailed component-oriented cost model is important to assess HRS costs for different design concepts layout schemes and possible customizations respect to aggregate tools which are mostly available in literature. In this work an improved version of a previously developed component-oriented scale-sensitive HRS cost model is applied to 5 different European HRS developed within the 3Emotion project with different refueling capacities (kgH2/day) hydrogen supply schemes (in-situ production or delivery) storage volumes and pressures and operational strategies. The model output allows to assess the upfront investment cost (CAPEX) the annual operational cost (OPEX) and the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) at the dispenser and identify the most crucial cost components. The results for the five analyzed HRS sites show an LCOH at the nozzle of around 8-9 €/kg for delivery based HRSs which are mainly dominated by the H2 retail price and transport service price and around 11-12 €/kg for on-site producing HRS for which the electrolyzer CAPEX and electricity price plays a key role in the cost structure. The compression storage and dispensing sections account for between 1-3 €/kg according to the specific design & performance requirements of the HRS. The total LCOH values are comparable with literature standard market prices for similar scale HRSs and with the 3Emotion project targets.

Under the guidance of energy-saving and emission reduction goals a lowcarbon economic operation method for integrated energy systems (IES) has been proposed. This strategy aims to enhance energy utilization efficiency bolster equipment operational flexibility and significantly cut down on carbon emissions from the IES. Firstly a thorough exploration of the two-stage operational framework of Power-to-Gas (P2G) technology is conducted. Electrolyzers methane reactors and hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) are introduced as replacements for traditional P2G equipment with the objective of harnessing the multiple benefits of hydrogen energy. Secondly a cogeneration and HFC operational strategy with adjustable heat-to-electricity ratio is introduced to further enhance the IES’s low-carbon and economic performance. Finally a step-by-step carbon trading mechanism is introduced to effectively steer the IES towards carbon emission control.