Applications & Pathways

Hydrogen remains an important option for long-term decarbonisation of energy and transport systems. However studying the possible transition paths and development prospects for a hydrogen energy system is challenging. The long-term nature of technological transitions inevitably means profound uncertainties diverging perspectives and contested priorities. Both modelling approaches and narrative storyline scenarios are widely used to explore the possible future of hydrogen energy but each approach has shortcomings.<br/>This paper presents a hybrid approach to assessing hydrogen transitions in the UK by confronting qualitative socio-technical scenarios with quantitative energy systems modelling through a process of ‘dialogue’ between scenario and model. Three possible transition pathways are explored each exploring different uncertainties and possible decision points. Conclusions are drawn for both the future of hydrogen and on the value of an approach that brings quantitative formal models and narrative scenario techniques into dialogue.

This paper presents the design of a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) tri-generation system that consists of an SOFC-combined heat and power subsystem an adsorption refrigeration subsystem and coupling devices between the two subsystems. Whereas typical extant designs use absorption techniques the proposed design employs adsorption refrigeration. In this paper the dynamics of adsorption refrigeration are reported in detail to evaluate the feasibility of the tri-generation system design. The design of the coupling devices and instrumentation strategies of the overall system are discussed in detail. Simulation results indicate that the proposed SOFC trigeneration system can output 4.35 kW of electrical power 2.448 kW of exhaust heat power and 1.348 kW of cooling power. The energy efficiency is 64.9% and the coefficient of performance of the refrigeration is 0.32. Varying the electrical output power results in the variation of exhaust heat power but not the cooling power; varying the cooling power affects the exhaust heat power but not the electrical power. These favorable features can be attributed to the proposed heat exchange sequence and active temperature controls of the system.

As one of the most promising alternative fuels hydrogen is expected with high hopes. The electrolysis of water is regarded as the cleanest and most efficient method of hydrogen production. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is deemed as one of the most promising alternatives HER catalysts owing to its high catalytic activity and low cost. Its continuous production and efficient preparation become the key problems in future industrial production. In this work we first developed a continuous micro-reaction approach with high heat and mass transfer rates to synthesize few-layer MoS2 nanoplates with abundant active sites. The defective MoS2 ultrathin nanoplates exhibit excellent HER performance with an overpotential of 260 mV at a current density of 10 mA cm-2 small Tafel slope (53.6 mV dec-1) and prominent durability which are comparable to most reported MoS2 based catalysts. Considering the existence of continuous devices it’s suitable for the synthesis of MoS2 as high-performance electrocatalysts for the industrial water electrolysis. The novel preparation method may open up a new way to synthesize all two-dimension materials toward HER.

Currently most of the vehicles make use of fossil fuels for operations resulting in one of the largest sources of carbon dioxide emissions. The need to cut our dependency on these fossil fuels has led to an increased use of renewable energy sources (RESs) for mobility purposes. A technical and economic analysis of a one-stop charging station for battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) is investigated in this paper. The hybrid optimization model for electric renewables (HOMER) software and the heavy-duty refueling station analysis model (HDRSAM) are used to conduct the case study for a one-stop charging station at Technical University of Denmark (DTU)-Risø campus. Using HOMER a total of 42 charging station scenarios are analyzed by considering two systems (a grid-connected system and an off-grid connected system). For each system three different charging station designs (design A-hydrogen load; design B-an electrical load and design C-an integrated system consisting of both hydrogen and electrical load) are set up for analysis. Furthermore seven potential wind turbines with different capacity are selected from HOMER database for each system. Using HDRSAM a total 18 scenarios are analyzed with variation in hydrogen delivery option production volume hydrogen dispensing option and hydrogen dispensing option. The optimal solution from HOMER for a lifespan of twenty-five years is integrated into design C with the grid-connected system whose cost was $986065. For HDRSAM the optimal solution design consists of tube trailer as hydrogen delivery with cascade dispensing option at 350 bar together with high production volume and the cost of the system was $452148. The results from the two simulation tools are integrated and the overall cost of the one-stop charging station is achieved which was $2833465. The analysis demonstrated that the one-stop charging station with a grid connection is able to fulfil the charging demand cost-effectively and environmentally friendly for an integrated energy system with RESs in the investigated locations.

With the development of technologies in recent decades and the imposition of international standards to reduce greenhouse gas emissions car manufacturers have turned their attention to new technologies related to electric/hybrid vehicles and electric fuel cell vehicles. This paper focuses on electric fuel cell vehicles which optimally combine the fuel cell system with hybrid energy storage systems represented by batteries and ultracapacitors to meet the dynamic power demand required by the electric motor and auxiliary systems. This paper compares the latest proposed topologies for fuel cell electric vehicles and reveals the new technologies and DC/DC converters involved to generate up-to-date information for researchers and developers interested in this specialized field. From a software point of view the latest energy management strategies are analyzed and compared with the reference strategies taking into account performance indicators such as energy efficiency hydrogen consumption and degradation of the subsystems involved which is the main challenge for car developers. The advantages and disadvantages of three types of strategies (rule-based strategies optimization-based strategies and learning-based strategies) are discussed. Thus future software developers can focus on new control algorithms in the area of artificial intelligence developed to meet the challenges posed by new technologies for autonomous vehicles.

Green ammonia has potential as a zero-emissions energy vector in applications such as energy storage transmission and distribution and zero-emissions transportation. Renewable energy such as offshore wind energy has been proposed to power its production. This paper designed and analyzed an on-land small-scale power-to-ammonia (P2A) production system with a target nominal output of 15 tonnes of ammonia per day which will use an 8 MW offshore turbine system off the coast of Nova Scotia Canada as the main power source. The P2A system consists of a reverse osmosis system a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser a hydrogen storage tank a nitrogen generator a set of compressors and heat exchangers an autothermal Haber-Bosch reactor and an ammonia storage tank. The system uses an electrical grid as a back-up for when the wind energy is insufficient as the process assumes a steady state. Two scenarios were analyzed with Scenario 1 producing a steady state of 15 tonnes of ammonia per day and Scenario 2 being one that switched production rates whenever wind speeds were low to 55% the nominal capacity. The results show that the grid connected P2A system has significant emissions for both scenarios which is larger than the traditional fossil-fuel based ammonia production when using the grid in provinces like Nova Scotia even if it is just a back-up during low wind power generation. The levelized cost of ammonia (LCOA) was calculated to be at least 2323 CAD tonne−1 for both scenarios which is not cost competitive in this small production scale. Scaling up the whole system reducing the reliance on the electricity grid increasing service life and decreasing windfarm costs could reduce the LCOA and make this P2A process more cost competitive.

Several alternative fuel–vehicle combinations are being considered for replacement of the internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the dependence on fossil fuels. The International Energy Agency has proposed the inclusion of low carbon alternatives such as electricity hydrogen and biofuels in the transport sector for reducing the GHG emissions and providing a sustainable future. This paper compares the use of these alternative fuels viz. electricity hydrogen and bio-ethanol in combination with battery electric vehicle (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) technologies on the basis of their overall efficiency and GHG emissions involved in the conversion of the primary energy source to the actual energy required at wheels through a well-to-wheel analysis. The source of energy for electricity production plays a major role in determining the overall efficiency and the GHG emissions of a BEV. Hence electricity production mix of Germany (60% fossil fuel energy) France (76% nuclear energy) Sweden and Austria (60 and 76% renewable energy respectively) the European Union mix (48% fossil fuel energy) and the United States of America (68% fossil fuel energy) are considered for the BEV analysis. In addition to the standard hydrogen based FCEVs CNG and bio-ethanol based FCEVs are analysed. The influence of a direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC) on GHG emissions and overall chain efficiency is discussed. In addition to the standard sources of bio-ethanol (like sugarcane corn etc.) sources like wood waste and wheat straw are included in the analysis. The results of this study suggest that a BEV powered by an electricity production mix dominated by renewable energy and bio-ethanol based DEFC electric vehicles offer the best solution in terms of GHG emissions efficiency and fossil fuel dependency. Bio-ethanol as a fuel has the additional advantage to be implemented readily in ICE vehicles followed by advancements through reformer based FCEVs and DEFC electric vehicles. Although important this analysis does not include the health effects of the alternative vehicles. Bio-ethanol used in an ICE may lead to increased emission of acetaldehydes which however might not be the case if it is used in fuel cells.

Our new independent report finds that hydrogen can play an important role in UK’s ambitious decarbonisation plan and boost its global industrial competitiveness.

Key insights from this new analysis include:

• New independent report from Aurora Energy Research shows that hydrogen can meet up to half of Great Britain’s (GB) final energy demand by 2050 providing an important pathway to reaching UK’s ambitious Net Zero targets.
• The report concludes that both blue hydrogen (produced from natural gas after reforming to remove carbon content) and green hydrogen (produced by using power to electrolyse water) are expected to play an important role providing up to 480TWh of hydrogen or c.45% of GB’s final energy demand by 2050.
• All Net Zero scenarios require substantial growth in low-carbon generation such as renewables and nuclear. Large-scale hydrogen adoption could help to integrate renewables into the power system by reducing the power sector requirement for flexibility during peak winter months and boosting revenues for clean power generators by c. £3bn per year by 2050.
• The rollout of hydrogen could accelerate green growth and enable the development of globally competitive low-carbon industrial clusters while utilising UK’s competitive advantage on carbon capture.
• In facilitating the identification of a cost-effective hydrogen pathway there are some low-regret options for Government to explore including the stimulation of hydrogen demand in key sectors the deployment of CCS in strategic locations and the standardisation of networks. These initiatives could form an important part of the UK Government’s post-COVID stimulus plan.

Read the full report on Aurora Energy Research Website

The target for European decarburization encourages the use of renewable energy sources and H₂ is considered the link in the global energy system transformation. So research studies are numerous but only few facilities can test materials and components for H₂ storage. This work offers a brief review of H₂ storage methods and presents the preliminary results obtained in a new facility. Slow strain rate and fatigue life tests were performed in H₂ at 80 MPa on specimens and a tank of AISI 4145 respectively. Besides the storage capacity at 30 MPa of a solid-state system they were evaluated on kg scale by adsorption test. The results have shown the H₂ influence on mechanical properties of the steel. The adsorption test showed a gain of 26% at 12 MPa in H₂ storage with respect to the empty condition. All samples have been characterized by complementary techniques in order to connect the H2 effect with material properties.

Hydrogen can be used for a variety of domestic and industrial purposes such as heating and cooking (as a replacement for natural gas) transportation (replacing petrol and diesel) and energy storage (by converting intermittent renewable energy into hydrogen). The key benefit of using hydrogen is that it is a clean fuel that emits only water vapour and heat when combusted.



To support implementation of the National Hydrogen Strategy Geoscience Australia in collaboration with Monash University are releasing the Hydrogen Economic Fairways Tool (HEFT).  HEFT is a free online tool designed to support decision making by policymakers and investors on the location of new infrastructure and development of hydrogen hubs in Australia. It considers both hydrogen produced from renewable energy and from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage.



This seminar demonstrates HEFT’s capabilities its potential to attract worldwide investment into Australia’s hydrogen industry and what’s up next for hydrogen at Geoscience Australia.



You can use the Hydrogen Economic Fairways Tool (HEFT) on the Website of the Australian government at the link here

To meet the needs of public and private stakeholders involved in the development construction and operation of hydrogen fuelling stations needed to support the widespread roll-out of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles this work presents publicly available station templates and analyses. These ‘Reference Stations’ help reduce the cost and speed the deployment of hydrogen stations by providing a common baseline with which to start a design enable quick assessment of potential sites for a hydrogen station identify contributors to poor economics and suggest areas of research. This work presents layouts bills of materials piping and instrumentation diagrams and detailed analyses of five new station designs. In the near term delivered hydrogen results in a lower cost of hydrogen compared to on-site production via steam methane reforming or electrolysis although the on-site production methods have other advantages. Modular station concepts including on-site production can reduce lot sizes from conventional assemble-on-site stations.

A key component of the Government's recently announced ‘Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution’ is 'Driving the Growth of Low Carbon Hydrogen'. The plan outlined a range of measures to support the development and adoption of hydrogen including a £240 million 'Net Zero Hydrogen Fund'. Noting this and the further £81 million allocated for hydrogen heating trials in the 2020 Spending Review the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee is today launching a new inquiry into the role of hydrogen in achieving Net Zero.  

Following recommendations from the Committee on Climate Change that the Government develop a strategy for hydrogen use and should aim for largescale hydrogen trials to begin in the early 2020s the Committee seeks to ensure that the Government's intended plan will be suitable and effective. The Committee will also assess the infrastructure required for hydrogen as a Net Zero fuel and examine progress made so far internationally to determine the viability of hydrogen as a significant contributor to achieving Net Zero.

All documents are in the Supplements tab above.

The paper presents a sustainable electric powertrain for a transit city bus featuring an electrochemical battery-free power unit consisting of a hydrogen fuel cell stack and a kinetic energy storage system based on high-speed flywheels. A rare-earth free high-efficiency motor technology is adopted to pursue a more sustainable vehicle architecture by limiting the use of critical raw materials. A suitable dynamic energetic model of the full vehicle powertrain has been developed to investigate the feasibility of the traction system and the related energy management control strategy. The model includes losses characterisation as a function of the load of the main components of the powertrain by using experimental tests and literature data. The performance of the proposed solution is evaluated by simulating a vehicle mission on an urban path in real traffic conditions. Considerations about the effectiveness of the traction system are discussed.

Shipping is one of the largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emitting sectors of the global economy responsible for around 1 Gt of CO₂eq every year. If shipping were a country it would be the 6th biggest GHG emitter. EU related shipping is responsible for about 1/5 of global ship GHG emissions emitting on average 200 Mt/year. This report assesses potential technology pathways for decarbonising EU related shipping through a shift to zero carbon technologies and the impact such a move could have on renewable electricity demand in Europe. It also identifies key policy and sustainability issues that should be considered when analysing and supporting different technology options to decarbonise the maritime sector. The basis of the study is outbound journeys under the geographical scope of the EU ship MRV Regulation.



We have not tried to quantify the emissions reductions that specific regulatory measures to be introduced at the IMO or EU level might contribute towards decarbonisation by 2050 because there are too many uncertainties. We have taken a more limited first approach and investigated how zero carbon propulsion pathways that currently seem feasible to decarbonise shipping would likely affect the future EU renewable energy supply needs.



It is now generally accepted that ship design efficiency requirements while potentially having an important impact on future emissions growth will fall well short of what is needed. Further operational efficiency measures such as capping operational speed will be important to immediately peak energy consumption and emissions but will be insufficient to decarbonise the sector or reduce its growing energy needs. In this context this study assumes that with all the likely immediate measures adopted energy demand for EU related shipping will still grow by 50% by 2050 over 2010 levels. This is within the range of the 20 -1 20% global BAU maritime energy demand growth estimate.



The decarbonisation of shipping will require changes in on -board energy storage and use and the necessary accompanying bunkering infrastructure. This study identifies the technology options for zero emission propulsion that based on current know-how are likely to be adopted. It is not exhaustive nor prescriptive because the ultimate pathways will likely depend on both the requirements of the shipping industry in terms of cost efficiency and safety and on the future renewable electricity sources that the shipping sect or will need to compete for.



Literature is nascent on the different techno-economic options likely to be available to decarbonise shipping and individual ships 4 but almost completely lacking on the possible impacts of maritime decarbonisation on the broader energy system(s). Understanding these impacts is nevertheless essential because it will influence financial and economic decision making by the EU and member states including those related to investment in future renewable energy supplies and new ship bunkering infrastructure. With this in mind the report aims to provide a preliminary first answer to the following question: Under different zero emission technology pathways how much additional renewable electricity would be needed to cater for the needs of EU related shipping in 2050?



Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website

The latest pre-production vehicles on the market show that the major technical challenges posed by integrating a fuel cell system (FCS) within a vehicle—compactness safety autonomy reliability cold starting—have been met. Regarding the ongoing maturity of fuel cell systems dedicated to road transport the present article examines the advances still needed to move from a functional but niche product to a mainstream consumer product. It seeks to address difficulties not covered by more traditional innovation approaches. At least in long-distance heavy-duty vehicles fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are going to play a key role in the path to zero-emissions in one or two decades. Hence the present study also addresses the structuring elements of the complete chain: the latter includes the production storage and distribution of hydrogen. Green hydrogen appears to be one of the potential uses of renewable energies. The greener the electricity is the greater the advantage for hydrogen since it permits to economically store large energy quantities on seasonal rhythms. Moreover natural hydrogen might also become an economic reality pushing the fuel cell vehicle to be a competitive and environmentally friendly alternative to the battery electric vehicle. Based on its own functional benefits for on board systems hydrogen in combination with the fuel cell will achieve a large-scale use of hydrogen in road transport as soon as renewable energies become more widespread. Its market will expand from large driving range and heavy load vehicles

The approach developed aims to identify the methodology that will be used to deliver the minimum cost for hydrogen infrastructure deployment using a mono-objective linear optimisation. It focuses on minimizing both capital and operation costs of the hydrogen transportation based on transportation via truck which represents the main focus of this paper and a cost-minimal pipeline system in the case of France and Germany. The paper explains the mathematical model describing the link between the hydrogen production via electrolysers and the distribution for mobility needs. The main parameters and the assumed scenario framework are explained. Subsequently the transportation of hydrogen via truck using different states of aggregation is analysed as well as the transformation and storage of hydrogen. This is used finally to build a linear programming aiming to minimize the sum of costs of hydrogen transportation between the different nodes and transformation/storage within the nodes.

The need to significantly reduce emissions from the steelmaking sector requires effective and ready-to-use technical solutions. With this aim different decarbonization strategies have been investigated by both researchers and practitioners. To this concern the most promising pathway is represented by the replacement of natural gas with pure hydrogen in the direct reduced iron (DRI) production process to feed an electric arc furnace (EAF). This solution allows to significantly reduce direct emissions of carbon dioxide from the DRI process but requires a significant amount of electricity to power electrolyzers adopted to produce hydrogen. The adoption of renewable electricity sources (green hydrogen) would reduce emissions by 95–100% compared to the blast furnace–basic oxygen furnace (BF–BOF) route. In this work an analytical model for the identification of the minimum emission configuration of a green energy–steel system consisting of a secondary route supported by a DRI production process and a renewable energy conversion system is proposed. In the model both technological features of the hydrogen steel plant and renewable energy production potential of the site where it is to be located are considered. Compared to previous studies the novelty of this work consists of the joint modeling of a renewable energy system and a steel plant. This allows to optimize the overall system from an environmental point of view considering the availability of green hydrogen as an inherent part of the model. Numerical experiments proved the effectiveness of the model proposed in evaluating the suitability of using green hydrogen in the steelmaking process. Depending on the characteristics of the site and the renewable energy conversion system adopted decreases in emissions ranging from 60% to 91% compared to the BF–BOF route were observed for the green energy–steel system considered It was found that the environmental benefit of using hydrogen in the secondary route is strictly related to the national energy mix and to the electrolyzers’ technology. Depending on the reference context it was found that there exists a maximum value of the emission factor from the national electricity grid below which is environmentally convenient to produce DRI by using only hydrogen. It was moreover found that the lower the electricity consumption of the electrolyzer the higher the value assumed by the emission factor from the electricity grid which makes the use of hydrogen convenient.

Hydrogen Fuelling Infrastructure Research and Station Technology (H2FIRST) is a project initiated by the DOE in 2015 and executed by Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to address R&D barriers to the deployment of hydrogen fuelling infrastructure. One key barrier to the deployment of fuelling stations is the land area they require (i.e. ""footprint""). Space is particularly a constraint in dense urban areas where hydrogen demand is high but space for fuelling stations is limited. This work presents current fire code requirements that inform station footprint then identifies and quantifies opportunities to reduce footprint without altering the safety profile of fuelling stations. Opportunities analyzed include potential new methods of hydrogen delivery as well as alternative placements of station technologies (i.e. rooftop/underground fuel storage). As interest in heavy-duty fuelling stations and other markets for hydrogen grows this study can inform techniques to reduce the footprint of heavy-duty stations as well.



This work characterizes generic designs for stations with a capacity of 600 kg/day hydrogen dispensed and 4 dispenser hoses. Three base case designs (delivered gas delivered liquid and on-site electrolysis production) have been modified in 5 different ways to study the impacts of recently released fire code changes colocation with gasoline refuelling alternate delivery assumptions underground storage of hydrogen and rooftop storage of hydrogen resulting in a total of 32 different station designs. The footprints of the base case stations range from 13000 to 21000 ft².



A significant focus of this study is the NFPA 2 requirements especially the prescribed setback distances for bulk gaseous or liquid hydrogen storage. While the prescribed distances are large in some cases these setback distances are found to have a nuanced impact on station lot size; considerations of the delivery truck path traffic flow parking and convenience store location are also important. Station designs that utilize underground and rooftop storage can reduce footprint but may not be practical or economical. For example burying hydrogen storage tanks underground can reduce footprint but the cost savings they enable depend on the cost of burial and the cost land. Siting and economic analysis of station lot sizes illustrate the benefit of smaller station footprints in the flexibility and cost savings they can provide. This study can be used as a reference that provides examples of the key design differences that fuelling stations can incorporate the approximate sizes of generic station lots and considerations that might be unique to particular designs.

The permanent introduction of green hydrogen into the energy economy would require that a discriminating selection be made of its use in the sectors where its value is optimal in terms of relative cost and life cycle reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Consequently hydrogen can be used as an energy storage medium when intermittent wind and solar power exceed certain penetration in the grid likely above 40% and in road transportation right away to begin displacing gasoline and diesel fuels. To this end the proposed approach is to utilize current technologies represented by PHEV in light-duty and HEV in heavy-duty vehicles where a high-performance internal combustion engine is used with a fuel comprised of 15–20% green hydrogen and 85–89% green methane depending on vehicle type. This fuel designated as RHYME takes advantage of the best attributes of hydrogen and methane results in lower life cycle carbon dioxide emissions than BEVs or FCEVs and offers a cost-effective and pragmatic approach both locally as well as globally in establishing hydrogen as part of the energy economy over the next ten to thirty years.

To have a uniform distribution of reactants is an advantage to a fuel cell. We report results for such a distributor with tree-like flow field plates (FFP). Numerical simulations have shown that the width scaling parameters of tree-like patterns in FFPs used in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) reduces the viscous dissipation in the channels. In this study experimental investigations were conducted on a 2-layer FF plate possessing a tree-like FF pattern which was CNC milled on high-quality graphite. Three FF designs of different width scaling parameters were employed. I–V curves power curves and impedance spectra were generated at 70% 60% and 50% relative humidity (25 cm² active area) and compared to those obtained from a conventional 1-channel serpentine FF. It was found that the FF design with a width scaling factor of 0.917 in the inlet and 0.925 in the outlet pattern exhibited the best peak power out of the three designs (only 11% - 0.08 W/cm² lower than reference serpentine FF). Results showed that a reduction of the viscous dissipation in the flow pattern was not directly linked to a PEMFC performance increase. It was found that water accumulation together with a slight increase in single PEMFC resistance were the main reasons for the reduced power density. As further improvements a reduction of the number of branching generation levels and width scaling factor were recommended.

European countries approach the market ramp-up of hydrogen very differently. In some cases the economic and political starting points differ significantly. While the probability is high that some countries such as Germany or Italy will import hydrogen in the long term other countries such as United Kingdom France or Spain could become hydrogen exporters. The reasons for this are the higher potential for renewable energies but also a technology-neutral approach on the supply side.

Purpose- To present an overview of the research and development carried out in a European funded framework 7 (FP7) project called SafeHPower for the implementation of neutron radiography to inspect fatigue cracks in vehicle and storage hydrogen fuel tanks. Project background– Hydrogen (H2) is the most promising replacement fuel for road transport due to its abundance efficiency low carbon footprint and the absence of harmful emissions. For the mass market of hydrogen to take off the safety issue surrounding the vehicle and storage hydrogen tanks needs to be addressed. The problem is the residual and additional stresses experienced by the tanks during the continuous cyclic loading between ambient and storage pressure which can result in the development of fatigue cracks. Steel tanks used as storage containers at service stations and depots and/or the composite tanks lined with steel are known to suffer from hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Another issue is the explosive nature of hydrogen (when it is present in the 18-59% range) where it is mixed with oxygen which can lead to catastrophic consequences including loss of life. Monitoring systems that currently exist in the market impose visual examination tests pressure tests and hydrostatic tests after the tank installation [1] [2]. Three inspection systems have been developed under this project to provide continuous monitoring solutions. Approach and scope- One of the inspection systems based on the neutron radiography (NR) technology that was developed in different phases with the application of varied strategies has been presented here. Monte Carlo (MCNP) simulation results to design and develop a bespoke collimator have been presented. A limitation of using an inertial electrostatic Deuterium-Tritium (D-T) pulsed neutron generator for fast neutron radiography has been discussed. Radiographs from the hydrogen tank samples obtained using thermal neutrons from a spallation neutron source at ISIS Rutherford laboratory UK have been presented. Furthermore radiograph obtained using thermal neutrons from a portable D-T neutron generator has been presented. In conclusion a proof in principle has been made to show that the defects in the hydrogen fuel tank can be detected using thermal neutron radiography.

The present work aims to identify critical materials in water electrolysers with potential future supply constraints. The expected rise in demand for green hydrogen as well as the respective implications on material availability are assessed by conducting a case study for Germany. Furthermore the recycling of end‐of‐life (EoL) electrolysers is evaluated concerning its potential in ensuring the sustainable supply of the considered materials. As critical materials bear the risk of raising production costs of electrolysers substantially this article examines the readiness of this technology for industrialisation from a material perspective. Except for titanium the indicators for each assessed material are scored with a moderate to high (platinum) or mostly high (iridium scandium and yttrium) supply risk. Hence the availability of these materials bears the risk of hampering the scale‐up of electrolysis capacity. Although conventional recycling pathways for platinum iridium and titanium already exist secondary material from EoL electrolysers will not reduce the dependence on primary resources significantly within the period under consideration—from 2020 until 2050. Notably the materials identified as critical are used in PEM and high temperature electrolysis whereas materials in alkaline electrolysis are not exposed to significant supply risks.

Greenhouse gas emissions from the freight transportation sector are a significant contributor to climate change pollution and negative health impacts because of the common use of heavy-duty diesel vehicles (HDVs). Governments around the world are working to transition away from diesel HDVs and to electric HDVs to reduce emissions. Battery electric HDVs and hydrogen fuel cell HDVs are two available alternatives to diesel engines. Each diesel engine HDV battery-electric HDV and hydrogen fuel cell HDV powertrain has its own advantages and disadvantages. This work provides a comprehensive review to examine the working mechanism performance metrics and recent developments of the aforementioned HDV powertrain technologies. A detailed comparison between the three powertrain technologies highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each is also presented along with future perspectives of the HDV sector. Overall diesel engine in HDVs will remain an important technology in the short-term future due to the existing infrastructure and lower costs despite their high emissions while battery-electric HDV technology and hydrogen fuel cell HDV technology will be slowly developed to eliminate their barriers including costs infrastructure and performance limitations to penetrate the HDV market.

The Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) explored the role of households in a net-zero emissions society to accompany the CCC’s Net Zero report looking at opportunities and challenges for households to reduce emissions from today’s levels and to support the stretch from an 80% emissions reduction to a net-zero greenhouse gas target. As well as describing a net-zero emissions world for households of different types the ESC looked at average household emissions under different decarbonisation scenarios and the options households can take to contribute to the decarbonisation effort.

This supported the Net Zero Technical report.