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Strategic Overview on Fuel Cell-Based Systems for Mobility and Electrolytic Cells for Hydrogen Production
Mar 2022
Publication
Given the global effort to embrace research actions and technology enhancement for the energy transition innovative sustainable systems are needed both for energy production and for those sectors that are responsible for high pollution and CO2 emissions. In this context electrolytic cells and fuel cells in their variety and flexibility are energy systems characterized by high efficiency and important performance guaranteeing a sustainable solution for future energy systems and for the circular economy. The scope of this paper is therefore to present the state of the art of such systems. An overview of the electrolyzers for hydrogen production is presented by detailing the level of applications for their different technologies from low-temperature units to high-temperature units the fuel flexibility the electrolysis and co-electrolysis mode and the potential coupling with renewable sources. Fuel cell-based systems are also presented and their application in the mobility sector is investigated by considering road transport with light-duty and heavy-duty applications and marine transport. A comparison with conventional technologies will be also presented providing some hints on the potential applications of electrolytic cells and fuel cell systems given their important contribution to the sustainable and circular economy.
Energy Transition Technology Comes With New Process Safety Challenges and Risks
Jul 2023
Publication
This paper intends to give an impression of new technologies and processes that are in development for application to achieve decarbonization and about which less or no experience on associated hazards exists in the process industry. More or less an exception is hydrogen technology because its hazards are relatively known and there is industry experience in handling it safely but problems will arise when it is produced stored and distributed on a large scale. So when its use spreads to communities and it becomes as common as natural gas now measures to control the risks will be needed. And even with hydrogen surprise findings have been shown lately e.g. its BLEVE behavior when in a liquified form stored in a vessel heated externally. Substitutes for hydrogen are not without hazard concern either. The paper will further consider the hazards of energy storage in batteries and the problems to get those hazards under control. Relatively much attention will be paid to the electrification of the process industry. Many new processes are being researched which given green energy will be beneficial to reduce greenhouse gases and enhance sustainability but of which hazards are rather unknown. Therefore as last chapter the developments with respect to the concept of hazard identification and scenario definition will be considered in quite detail. Improvements in that respect are also being possible due to the digitization of the industry and the availability of data and considering the entire life cycle all facilitated by the data model standard ISO 15926 with the scope of integration of life-cycle data for process plants including oil and gas production facilities. Conclusion is that the new technologies and processes entail new process and personal hazards and that much effort is going into renewal but safety analyses are scarce. Right in a period of process renewal attention should be focused on possibilities to implement inherently safer design.
Toward Green Steel: Modelling and Environmental Economic Analysis of Iron Direct Reduction with Different Reducing Gases
Sep 2023
Publication
The objective of the paper is to simulate the whole steelmaking process cycle based on Direct Reduced Iron and Electric Arc Furnace technologies by modeling for the first time the reduction furnace based on kinetic approach to be used as a basis for the environmental and techno-economic plant analysis by adopting different reducing gases. In addition the impact of carbon capture section is discussed. A complete profitability analysis has been conducted for the first time adopting a Monte Carlo simulation approach.<br/>In detail the use of syngas from methane reforming syngas and hydrogen from gasification of municipal solid waste and green hydrogen from water electrolysis are analyzed. The results show that the Direct Reduced Iron process with methane can reduce CO2 emissions by more than half compared to the blast furnace based-cycle and with the adoption of carbon capture greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by an additional 40%. The use of carbon capture by amine scrubbing has a limited economic disadvantage compared to the scenario without it becoming profitable once carbon tax is included in the analysis. However it is with the use of green hydrogen from electrolyzer that greenhouse gas emissions can be cut down almost completely. To have an environmental benefit compared with the methane-based Direct Reduced Iron process the green hydrogen plant must operate for at least 5136 h per year (64.2% of the plant's annual operating hours) on renewable energy.<br/>In addition the use of syngas and separated hydrogen from municipal solid waste gasification is evaluated demonstrating its possible use with no negative effects on the quality of produced steel. The results show that hydrogen use from waste gasification is more economic with respect to green hydrogen from electrolysis but from the environmental viewpoint the latter results the best alternative. Comparing the use of hydrogen and syngas from waste gasification it can be stated that the use of the former reducing gas results preferable from both the economic and environmental viewpoint.
A Bibliometric Study on the Research Trends and Hotspots of Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzer
Jan 2024
Publication
The application of hydrogen energy produced by proton exchange membrane electrolyzer (PEMEC) is conducive to the solution of the greenhouse effect and the energy crisis. In order to understand the development trends and research hotspot of PEMEC in recent years a total of 1874 research articles related to this field from 2003 to 2023 were obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS CC) database. The visualization software VOSviewer is used for bibliometric analysis and the research progress hotspots and trends in the PEMEC field are summarized. It was found that in the past two decades literature in the PEMEC field has shown a trend of stable increase at first and then rapidly increasing. And it is in a stage of rapid growth after 2021.Renewable Energy previously published research articles related to PEMEC with the highest frequency of citations. There are a total of 6128 researchers in this field but core authors only account for 4.5% of the total. Although China entered this field later than the United States and Canada it has the largest number of research articles. The research results provide a comprehensive overview of various aspects in the PEMEC field which is beneficial for researchers to grasp the development hotspots of PEMEC.
The Economic Competitiveness of Hydrogen Fuel Cell-Powered Trucks: A Review of Total Cost of Ownership Estimates
May 2024
Publication
This paper investigates the economic competitiveness of hydrogen-powered trucks. It reviews the growing number of papers that provide an estimate of the total cost of ownership (TCO) of hydrogen-powered trucks relative to their diesel equivalents. It examines the methodology applied the variables considered the data used for estimation and the results obtained. All reviewed studies conclude that hydrogen-powered trucks are not currently cost-competitive while they might become competitive after 2030. The conclusion holds across truck types and sizes hydrogen pathways mission profiles and countries. However we find that there is still a huge area of uncertainty regarding the purchase price of hydrogen-powered trucks and the cost of hydrogen which hampers the reliability of the results obtained. Various areas of methodological improvements are suggested.
Optimal Scheduling of an Electric-Hydrogen-Integrated Energy System Considering Virtual Energy Storage
Jan 2024
Publication
In this paper a two-layer optimization approach is proposed to facilitate the multi-energy complementarity and coupling and optimize the system configuration in an electric-hydrogen-integrated energy system (EH-IES). Firstly an EH-IES with virtual energy storage is proposed to reduce the cost of physical energy storage equipment. Secondly a two-layer optimal allocation method is proposed under a multi-timescale strategy to examine the comprehensive evaluation index of environmental protection and economy. The upper layer utilizes the NSGA-II multi-objective optimization method for system capacity allocation while the lower layer performs economic dispatch at the lowest cost. Ultimately the output includes the results of the equipment capacity allocation of the EH-IES that satisfies the reliability constraint interval and the daily scheduling results of the equipment. The results demonstrate that the electric-hydrogen-integrated energy system with the coupling of multiple energy equipment not only enhances the utilization of renewable energy sources but also reduces the usage of fossil energy and improves the system’s reliability.
Hydrogen Energy Storage: New Techno-economic Emergence Solution Analysis
Aug 2015
Publication
The integration of various renewable energy sources as well as the liberalization of electricity markets are established facts in modern electrical power systems. The increased share of renewable sources within power systems intensifies the supply variability and intermittency. Therefore energy storage is deemed as one of the solutions for stabilizing the supply of electricity to maintain generation-demand balance and to guarantee uninterrupted supply of energy to users. In the context of sustainable development and energy resources depletion the question of the growth of renewable energy electricity production is highly linked to the ability to propose new and adapted energy storage solutions. The purpose of this multidisciplinary paper is to highlight the new hydrogen production and storage technology its efficiency and the impact of the policy context on its development. A comprehensive techno/socio/economic study of long term hydrogen based storage systems in electrical networks is addressed. The European policy concerning the different energy storage systems and hydrogen production is explicitly discussed. The state of the art of the techno-economic features of the hydrogen production and storage is introduced. Using Matlab-Simulink for a power system of rated 70 kW generator the excess produced hydrogen during high generation periods or low demand can be sold either directly to the grid owners or as filled hydrogen bottles. The affordable use of Hydrogen-based technologies for long term electricity storage is verified.
The Role of Power-to-hydrogen in Carbon Neutral Energy and Industrial Systems: Case Finland
Aug 2023
Publication
To combat climate change decarbonization measures are undertaken across the whole energy sector. Industry and transportation sectors are seen as difficult sectors to decarbonize with green hydrogen being proposed as a solution to achieve decarbonization in these sectors. While many methods of introducing hydrogen to these sectors are present in literature few systemlevel works study the specific impacts of large-scale introduction has on power and heat sectors in an energy system. This contribution examines the effects of introducing hydrogen into a Finnish energy system in 2040 by conducting scenario simulations in EnergyPLAN – software. Primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions of the base scenario and hydrogen scenarios are compared. Additionally the differences between a constant and flexible hydrogen production profile are studied. Introducing hydrogen increases electricity consumption by 31.9 % but reduces CO2 emissions by 71.5 % and fossil energy consumption by 72.6%. The flexible hydrogen profile lowers renewable curtailment and improves energy efficiency but requires economically unfeasible hydrogen storage. Biomass consumption remains high and is not impacted significantly by the introduction of hydrogen. Additional measures in other sectors are needed to ensure carbon neutrality.
Renewable Hydrogen Standards, Certifications, and Labels: A State-of-the-art Review from a Sustainability Systems Governance Perspective
Feb 2024
Publication
A range of existing and newly developed hydrogen standards certification and labelling (SCL) schemes aim to promote the role of ‘renewable’ ‘clean’ or ‘green’ hydrogen in decarbonising energy transitions. This paper analyses a sample of these SCLs to assess their role in the scaling up of renewable hydrogen and its derivatives. To analyse these hydrogen SCLs we embellish a novel conceptual framework that brings together Sustainability Systems Thinking and Governance (SSG) literatures. The results reveal noteworthy scheme differences in motivation approach criteria and governance; highlighting the complex interconnected and dynamic reality within which energy systems are embedded. We consider whether the sustainable utilisation of renewable hydrogen is well-served by the proliferation of SCLs and recommend an SSG-informed approach. An SSG approach will better promote collaboration towards an authoritative global multistakeholder compromise on hydrogen certification that balances economic considerations with social and environmental dimensions.
Economics of Renewable Hydrogen Production Using Wind and Solar Energy: A Case Study for Queensland, Australia
Dec 2023
Publication
This study presents a technoeconomic analysis of renewables-based hydrogen production in Queensland Australia under Optimistic Reference and Pessimistic scenarios to address uncertainty in cost predictions. The goal of the work was to ascertain if the target fam-gate cost of AUD 3/kg (approx. USD 2/kg) could be reached. Economies of scale and the learning rate concept were factored into the economic model to account for the effect of scale-up and cost reductions as electrolyser manufacturing capacity grows. The model assumes that small-scale to large-scale wind turbine (WT)-based and photovoltaic (PV)-based power generation plants are directly coupled with an electrolyser array and utilises hourly generation data for the Gladstone hydrogen-hub region. Employing first a commonly used simplified approach the electrolyser array was sized based on the maximum hourly power available for hydrogen production. The initial results indicated that scale-up is very beneficial: the levelised cost of green hydrogen (LCOH) could decrease by 49% from $6.1/kg to $3.1/kg when scaling PV-based plant from 10 MW to 1 GW and for WT-based plant by 36% from $5.8/kg to $3.7/kg. Then impacts on the LCOH of incorporating curtailment of ineffective peak power and electrolyser overload capacity were investigated and shown to be significant. Also significant was the beneficial effect of recognising that electrolyser efficiency depends on input power. The latter two factors have mostly been overlooked in the literature. Incorporating in the model the influence on the LCOH of real-world electrolyser operational characteristics overcomes a shortcoming of the simplified sizing method namely that a large portion of electrolyser capacity is under-utilised leading to unnecessarily high values of the LCOH. It was found that AUD 3/kg is achievable if the electrolyser array is properly sized which should help to incentivise large-scale renewable hydrogen projects in Australia and elsewhere.
Green Hydrogen Integration in Aluminium Recycling: Techno-economic Analysis Towards Sustainability Transition in the Expanding Aluminium Market
Feb 2024
Publication
The use of aluminum-based products is widespread and growing particularly in industries such as automotive food packaging and construction. Obtaining aluminum is expensive and energy-intensive making the recycling of existing products essential for economic and environmental viability. This work explores the potential of using green hydrogen as a replacement for natural gas in the smelting and refining furnaces in aluminum recycling facilities. The adoption of green hydrogen has the potential to curtail approximately 4.54 Ktons/year of CO2 emissions rendering it a sustainable and economically advantageous solution. The work evaluates the economic viability of a case study through assessing the Net Present Value (NPV) and the Internal Rate of Return (IRR). Furthermore it is employed single- and multi-parameter sensitivity analyses to obtain insight on the most relevant conditions to achieve economic viability. Results demonstrate that integrating on-site green hydrogen generation yields a favorable NPV of €57370 an IRR of 9.83% and a 19.63-year payback period. The primary factors influencing NPV are the initial electricity consumption stack and the H2 price.
The Influence of the Changes in Natural Gas Supplies to Poland on the Amount of Hydrogen Produced in the SMR Reactor
Mar 2024
Publication
Thanks to investments in diversifying the supply of natural gas Poland did not encounter any gas supply issues in 2022 when gas imports from Russia were ceased due to the Russian Federation’s armed intervention in Ukraine. Over the past few years the supply of gas from routes other than the eastern route has substantially grown particularly the supplies of liquefied natural gas (LNG) via the LNG terminal in Swinouj´scie. The growing proportion of LNG in Poland’s gas supply ´ leads to a rise in ethane levels in natural gas as verified by the review of data taken at a specific location within the gas system over the years 2015 2020 and 2022. Using measurements of natural gas composition the effectiveness of the steam hydrocarbon reforming process was simulated in the Gibbs reactor via Aspen HYSYS. The simulations confirmed that as the concentration of ethane in the natural gas increased the amount of hydrogen produced and the heat required for reactions in the reformer also increased. This article aims to analyze the influence of the changes in natural gas quality in the Polish transmission network caused by changes in supply structures on the mass and heat balance of the theoretical steam reforming reactor. Nowadays the chemical composition of natural gas may be significantly different from that assumed years ago at the plant’s design stage. The consequence of such a situation may be difficulties in operating especially when controlling the quantity of incoming natural gas to the reactor based on volumetric flow without considering changes in chemical composition.
Exergy Analysis in Intensification of Sorption-enhanced Steam Methane Reforming for Clean Hydrogen Production: Comparative Study and Efficiency Optimisation
Feb 2024
Publication
Hydrogen has a key role to play in decarbonising industry and other sectors of society. It is important to develop low-carbon hydrogen production technologies that are cost-effective and energy-efficient. Sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming (SE-SMR) is a developing low-carbon (blue) hydrogen production process which enables combined hydrogen production and carbon capture. Despite a number of key benefits the process is yet to be fully realised in terms of efficiency. In this work a sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming process has been intensified via exergy analysis. Assessing the exergy efficiency of these processes is key to ensuring the effective deployment of low-carbon hydrogen production technologies. An exergy analysis was performed on an SE-SMR process and was then subsequently used to incorporate process improvements developing a process that has theoretically an extremely high CO2 capture rate of nearly 100 % whilst simultaneously demonstrating a high exergy efficiency (77.58 %) showcasing the potential of blue hydrogen as an effective tool to ensure decarbonisation in an energy-efficient manner.
Synergy of Carbon Capture, Waste Heat Recovery and Hydrogen Production for Industrial Decarbonisation
May 2024
Publication
Industry is the biggest sector of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions whose decarbonisation is essential to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Carbon capture energy efficiency improvement and hydrogen are among the main strategies for industrial decarbonization. However novel approaches are needed to address the key requirements and differences between sectors to ensure they can work together to well integrate industrial decarbonisation with heat CO2 and hydrogen. The emerging Calcium Looping (CaL) is attracting interest in designing CO2-involved chemical processes for heat capture and storage. The reversibility relatively high-temperature (600 to 900 ◦C) and high energy capacity output as well as carbon capture function make CaL well-fit for CO2 capture and utilisation and waste heat recovery from industrial flue gases. Meanwhile methane dry reforming (MDR) is a promising technology to produce blue hydrogen via the consumption of two major greenhouse gases i.e. CO2 and CH4. It has great potential to combine the two technologies to achieve insitu CO2 utilization with multiple benefits. In this paper progresses on the reaction conditions and performance of CaL for CO2 capture and industrial waste heat recovery as well as MDR were screened. Secondly recent approaches to CaL-MDR synergy have been reviewed to identify the advantages. The major challenges in such a synergistic process include MDR catalyst deactivation CaL sorbents sintering and system integration. Thirdly the paper outlooks future work to explore a rational design of a multi-function system for the proposed synergistic process.
Synergy of Carbon Capture, Waste Heat Recovery and Hydrogen Production for Industrial Decarbonisation
May 2024
Publication
Industry is the biggest sector of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions whose decarbonisation is essential to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Carbon capture energy efficiency improvement and hydrogen are among the main strategies for industrial decarbonization. However novel approaches are needed to address the key requirements and differences between sectors to ensure they can work together to well integrate industrial decarbonisation with heat CO2 and hydrogen. The emerging Calcium Looping (CaL) is attracting interest in designing CO2-involved chemical processes for heat capture and storage. The reversibility relatively high-temperature (600 to 900 ◦C) and high energy capacity output as well as carbon capture function make CaL well-fit for CO2 capture and utilisation and waste heat recovery from industrial flue gases. Meanwhile methane dry reforming (MDR) is a promising technology to produce blue hydrogen via the consumption of two major greenhouse gases i.e. CO2 and CH4. It has great potential to combine the two technologies to achieve insitu CO2 utilization with multiple benefits. In this paper progresses on the reaction conditions and performance of CaL for CO2 capture and industrial waste heat recovery as well as MDR were screened. Secondly recent approaches to CaL-MDR synergy have been reviewed to identify the advantages. The major challenges in such a synergistic process include MDR catalyst deactivation CaL sorbents sintering and system integration. Thirdly the paper outlooks future work to explore a rational design of a multi-function system for the proposed synergistic process.
Advancements in Hydrogen Energy Systems: A Review of Levelized Costs, Financial Incentives and Technological Innovations
Apr 2024
Publication
Hydrogen energy systems (HES) are increasingly recognized as pivotal in cutting global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions especially in transportation power generation and industrial sectors. This paper offers a comprehensive review of HES emphasizing their diverse applications and economic viability. By 2030 hydrogen energy is expected to revolutionize various sectors significantly impacting CO2 abatement and energy demand. In electricity and power generation hydrogen could reduce CO2 emissions by 50–100 million tons annually requiring 10–20 million tons of hydrogen and an investment of $50–100 billion underscoring its role in grid stabilization. Additionally in the heating sector hydrogen could facilitate a CO2 abatement of 30–50 million tons. We examine the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) production influenced by factors like production methods efficiency and infrastructure. While steam methane reforming is cost-effective it poses a larger environmental impact compared to electrolysis. The global life-cycle cost of hydrogen production decreases as production scales up with current costs ranging from $1–3 per kg for fossil-based sources to $3.4–7.5 per kg for electrolysis using low-emission electricity. These costs are projected to decrease especially for electrolytic hydrogen in regions with abundant solar energy. However despite the technical feasibility of decarbonization high production costs still pose challenges. A systematic and effective transition to a hydrogen economy requires comprehensive policy and financial support mechanisms including incentives subsidies tax measures and funding for research and development of pilot projects. Additionally the paper discusses hydrogen's role in advanced storage technologies such as hydrides and Japan's ENE-FARM solution for residential energy emphasizing the need for strategic investments across the hydrogen value chain to enhance HES competitiveness reduce LCOH and advance the learning rates of hydrogen production technologies.
Assessment of Fuel Switching as a Decarbonization Strategy in the Cement Sector
May 2024
Publication
Limiting global warming and the pursuit of a net-zero global society by 2050 emphasizes the need to transform the hard-to-abate industrial sectors. The cement sector is the second-largest source of global industrial emissions accounting for 8% of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. Fuel switching in the cement sector is a decarbonization pathway that has not been explored in detail; previous studies involving fuel switching in the sector either view it from an energy efficiency lens or focus on a single technology. In this study a framework is developed to evaluate and directly compare six fuel switching options (including hydrogen biomass municipal solid waste and natural gas) from 2020 to 2050. Capital costs non-energy operating costs energy costs and carbon costs are used to calculate marginal abatement costs and emulate cost based-market decisions. The developed framework is used to conduct a case study for Canada using the LEAP-Canada model. This study shows that cumulative energy-related greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by up to 21% between 2020 and 2050 with negative marginal abatement costs. Multiple fuel switching decarbonization pathways were established reducing the likelihood that locality prevents meaningful emissions reduction and suggesting that with low-carbon fuel and electricity policies the sector can take significant steps towards emissions reduction. The developed framework can be applied to jurisdictions around the world for decision making as nations move towards eliminating emissions from cement production.
Industrial Waste Gases as a Resource for Sustainable Hydrogen Production: Resource Availability, Production Potential, Challenges, and Prospects
May 2024
Publication
Industrial sectors pivotal for the economic prosperity of nations rely heavily on affordable reliable and environmentally friendly energy sources. Industries like iron and steel oil refineries and coal-fired power plants while instrumental to national economies are also the most significant contributors to waste gases that contain substantial volumes of carbon monoxide (CO). CO can be converted to a highly efficient and carbon free fuel hydrogen (H2) through a well-known water gas shift reaction. However the untapped potential of H2 from waste industrial streams is yet to be explored. This is the first article that investigates the potential of H2 production from industrial waste gases. The available resource (i.e. CO) and its H2 production potential are estimated. The article also provides insights into the principal challenges and potential avenues for long-term adoption. The results showed that 249.14 MTPY of CO are available to produce 17.44 MTPY of H2 annually. This suggests a significant potential for H2 production from waste gases to revolutionize industrial waste management and contribute significantly towards Sustainable Development Goals 7 9 and 13ensuring access to affordable reliable sustainable and modern energy for all and taking decisive climate action respectively.
The Role of Hydrogen-based Power Systems in the Energy Transition of the Residential Sector
Sep 2021
Publication
The unsustainable and continuous growth of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) has pushed governments private companies and stakeholders to adopt measures and policies to fight against climate change. Within this framework increasing the contribution of renewable energy sources (RES) to final consumed energy plays a key role in the planned energy transition. Regarding the residential sector in Europe 92% of GHG emissions comes from 75% of the building stock that is over 25 years old and highly inefficient. Thus this sector must raise RES penetration from the current 36% to 77% by 2050 to comply with emissions targets. In this regard the hybridization of hydrogen-based technologies and RES represents a reliable and versatile solution to facilitate decarbonization of the residential sector. This study provides an overview and analysis of standalone renewable hydrogen-based systems (RHS) focusing on the residential and buildings sector as well as critical infrastructures like telecom stations data servers etc. For detailed evaluation of RHS several pilot plants and real demonstration plants implemented worldwide are reviewed. To this end a techno-economic assessment of relevant parameters like self-sufficiency ratio levelized cost of energy and hydrogen roundtrip efficiency is provided. Moreover the performance of the different configurations is evaluated by comparing the installed power of each component and their energy contribution to cover the load over a defined period of time. Challenges ahead are identified for the wider deployment of RHS in the residential and buildings sector.
The Impact of Country-specific Investment Risks on the Levelised Costs of Green Hydrogen Production
Jun 2024
Publication
Green hydrogen is central to the global energy transition. This paper introduces a renewable hydrogen production system model that optimizes hydrogen production on a worldwide 50 km × 50 km grid considering country-specific investment risks. Besides the renewable energy’s impact on the hydrogen production system (HPS) design we analyze the effect of country-specific interest rates on the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) production. Over one-third (40.0%) of all cells have an installed solar PV capacity share between 50% and 70% 76.4% have a hybrid (onshore wind and solar PV) configuration. Hydrogen storage is deployed rather than battery storage to balance hydrogen production via electrolysis and hydrogen demand. Hybrid HPSs can significantly reduce the LCOH production compared to non-hybrid designs whereas country-specific interest rates can lead to significant increases diminishing the relative competitiveness of countries with abundant renewable energy resources compared to countries with fewer resources but fewer investment risks.
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