- Home
- A-Z Publications
- Publications
Publications
Fly the Green Deal: Europe's Vision for Sustainable Aviation
Jul 2022
Publication
Europe’s aviation sector continues its resilient and pioneering spirit as it leads the world’s transport system into its new era of great transformation. Surviving the pandemic it is adapting rapidly to satisfy the rising demand for competitive air mobility services while managing a scarcity of resources and embracing the new challenges of climate change and energy transition. Facilitated by ACARE the European Commission its Member States aviation research organisations design and manufacturing industries airlines airports and aviation energy and service providers have all joined together to envision a synchronized transformation path that will ensure that Europe can lead the world towards a climate neutral citizen centric and competitive air mobility system. “Fly the Green Deal” is Europe’s Vision for Sustainable Aviation. It describes the actions and actors necessary towards aviation’s three main strategic goals. It details three time horizons and defines as well the requirement for a proactive and synchronised implementation framework facilitated by the European Commission and EU Member States that includes both the initiating instruments (policies regulations and incentives) and a system of measuring and impact monitoring to ensure the goals are achieved.
Renewable Methanol Production from Green Hydrogen and Captured CO2: A Techno-economic Assessment
Nov 2022
Publication
This paper aims to present a pre-feasibility study of a power-to-fuel plant configuration designed for the production of 500 kg/h of renewable methanol (e-methanol) from green hydrogen and captured carbon dioxide. Hydrogen is obtained by water electrolysis employing the overproduction of renewable electricity. Carbon dioxide is assumed to be separated from the flue gas of a conventional power station by means of an amine-based CO2 absorption system. A comprehensive process model has been developed with the support of Aspen Plus tool to simulate all the plant sections and the overall system. After the process optimization a detailed economic analysis – based on capital and operating costs derived from commercial-scale experience and assuming a 20- year lifetime – has been performed to calculate a levelized cost of methanol (LCoM) of 960 €/t (about 175 €/MWh). The analysis confirms that today the technology is still not competitive from the economic point of view being LCoM more than double than the current methanol price in the international market (450 €/t). However it indicates that the process is expected to become competitive in a mid-term future as a consequence of the new European policies. The study also reveals that LCoM is mainly affected by the electricity price and the electrolyser capital cost as well as the capacity factor of the plant.
Towards Sustainable Transport: Techno-Economic Analysis of Investing in Hydrogen Buses in Public Transport in the Selected City of Poland
Dec 2022
Publication
The production storage and use of hydrogen for energy purposes will become increasingly important during the energy transition. One way to use hydrogen is to apply it to power vehicles. This green technological solution affects low-emissions transport which is beneficial and important especially in cities. The authors of this article analyzed the use of hydrogen production infrastructure for bus propulsion in the city of Katowice (Poland). The methods used in the study included a greedy algorithm and cost methods which were applied for the selection of vehicles and identification of the infrastructure for the production storage and refueling of hydrogen as well as to conduct the economic analysis during this term. The article presented the complexity of the techno-economic analysis of the infrastructure and its installation. The key element was the selection of the number of vehicles to the hydrogen production possibilities of an electrolyser and capabilities of the storage and charging infrastructure.
Historical Analysis of FCH 2 JU Stationary Fuel Cell Projects
May 2021
Publication
As a part of its knowledge management activities the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking 2 (FCH 2 JU) has commissioned the Joint Research Centre (JRC) to perform a series of historical analyses by topic area to assess the impact of funded projects and the progression of its current Multi-Annual Work Plan (MAWP; 2014- 2020) towards its objectives. These historical analyses consider all relevant funded projects since the programme’s inception in 2008. This report considers the performance of projects against the overall FCH 2 JU programme targets for stationary Fuel Cells (FCs) using quantitative values of Key Performance Indicators (KPI) for assessment. The purpose of this exercise is to see whether and how the programme has enhanced the state of the art for stationary fuel cells and to identify potential Research & Innovation (R&I) gaps for the future. Therefore the report includes a review of the current State of the Art (SoA) of fuel cell technologies used in the stationary applications sector. The programme has defined KPIs for three different power output ranges and equivalent applications: (i) micro-scale Combined Heat and Power (mCHP) for single family homes and small buildings (0.3 - 5 kW); (ii) mid-sized installations for commercial and larger buildings (5 - 400 kW); (iii) large scale FC installations converting hydrogen and renewable methane into power in various applications (0.4 - 30 MW). Projects addressing stationary applications in these particular power ranges were identified and values for the achieved KPIs extracted from relevant sources of information such as final reports and the TRUST database (Technology Reporting Using Structured Templates). As much of this data is confidential a broad analysis of performance of the programme against its KPIs has been performed without disclosing confidential information. The results of this analysis are summarised within this report. The information obtained from this study will be used to suggest future modifications to the research programme and associated targets.
Green and Blue Hydrogen Production: An Overview in Colombia
Nov 2022
Publication
Colombia a privileged country in terms of diversity availability of natural resources and geographical location has set a roadmap for hydrogen as part of the energy transition plan proposed in 2021. To reduce its emissions in the mid-term and foster its economy hydrogen production should be green and blue with specific targets set for 2030 for the hydrogen costs and produced quantities. This work compares the state-of-the-art production of blue and green hydrogen and how Colombia is doing in each pathway. A deeper analysis considers the advantages of Colombia’s natural resources the possible paths the government could follow and the feedstock’s geographical location for hydrogen production and transportation. Then one discusses what may be the next steps in terms of policies and developments to succeed in implementing the plan. Overall it is concluded that green hydrogen could be the faster more sustainable and more efficient method to implement in Colombia. However blue hydrogen could play an essential role if oil and gas companies assess the advantages of carbon dioxide utilization and promote its deployment.
Exploring the Complexity of Hydrogen Perception and Acceptance Among Key Stakeholders in Norway
Nov 2022
Publication
This article explores the complexity of factors or mechanisms that can influence hydrogen stakeholder perception and acceptance in Norway. We systematically analyze 16 semi-structured in-depth interviews with industry stakeholders at local municipal regional and national levels of interest and authority in Norway. Four empirical dimensions are identified that highlight the need for whole system approaches in hydrogen technology research: (1) several challenges incentives and synergy effects influence the hydrogen transition; (2) transport preferences are influenced by combined needs and limitations; (3) levels of knowledge and societal trust determinant to perceptions of risk and acceptance; and (4) national and international hydrogen stakeholders are crucial to building incentives and securing commitment among key actors. Our findings imply that project management planners engineers and policymakers need to apply a whole system perspective and work across local regional and national levels before proceeding with large-scale development and implementation of the hydrogen supply chain.
EU Decarbonization under Geopolitical Pressure: Changing Paradigms and Implications for Energy and Climate Policy
Mar 2023
Publication
This paper aims to assess the impact of EU energy and climate policy as a response to Russia’s war in Ukraine on the EU decarbonization enterprise. It showcases how the Russian invasion was a crunch point that forced the EU to abandon its liberal market dogma and embrace in practice an open strategic autonomy approach. This led to an updated energy and climate policy with significant changes underpinning its main pillars interdependence diversification and the focus of market regulation and build-up. The reversal of enforced interdependence with Russia and the legislative barrage to support and build-up a domestic clean energy market unlocks significant emission reduction potential with measures targeting energy efficiency solar wind and hydrogen development; an urban renewable revolution and electricity and carbon market reforms standing out. Such positive decarbonization effects however are weakened by source and fuel diversification moves that extend to coal and shale gas especially when leading to an infrastructure build-up and locking-in gas use in the mid-term. Despite these caveats the analysis overall vindicates the hypothesis that geopolitics constitutes a facilitator and accelerator of EU energy transition.
Techno-economic Viability of Islanded Green Ammonia as a Carbon-free Energy Vector and as a Substitute for Conventional Production
Jul 2020
Publication
Decarbonising ammonia production is an environmental imperative given that it independently accounts for 1.8% of global carbon dioxide emissions and supports the feeding of over 48% of the global population. The recent decline of production costs and its potential as an energy vector warrant investigation of whether green ammonia production is commercially competitive. Considering 534 locations in 70 countries and designing and operating the islanded production process to minimise the levelised cost of ammonia (LCOA) at each we show the range of achievable LCOA the cost of process flexibility the components of LCOA and therein the scope of LCOA reduction achievable at present and in 2030. These results are benchmarked against ammonia spot prices cost per GJ of refined fuels and the LCOE of alternative energy storage methods. Currently a LCOA of $473 t1 is achievable at the best locations the required process flexibility increases the achievable LCOA by 56%; the electrolyser CAPEX and operation are the most significant costs. By 2030 $310 t1 is predicted to be achievable with multiple locations below $350 t1 . At $25.4 GJ11 ) that do not have the benefit of being carbon-free.
Large-scale Hydrogen Production via Water Electrolysis: A Techno-economic and Environmental Assessment
Jul 2022
Publication
Low-carbon (green) hydrogen can be generated via water electrolysis using photovoltaic wind hydropower or decarbonized grid electricity. This work quantifies current and future costs as well as environmental burdens of large-scale hydrogen production systems on geographical islands which exhibit high renewable energy potentials and could act as hydrogen export hubs. Different hydrogen production configurations are examined considering a daily hydrogen production rate of 10 tonnes on hydrogen production costs life cycle greenhouse gas emissions material utilization and land transformation. The results demonstrate that electrolytic hydrogen production costs of 3.7 Euro per kg H2 are within reach today and that a reduction to 2 Euro per kg H2 in year 2040 is likely hence approaching cost parity with hydrogen from natural gas reforming even when applying ‘‘historical’’ natural gas prices. The recent surge of natural gas prices shows that cost parity between green and grey hydrogen can already be achieved today. Producing hydrogen via water electrolysis with low costs and low GHG emissions is only possible at very specific locations nowadays. Hybrid configurations using different electricity supply options demonstrate the best economic performance in combination with low environmental burdens. Autonomous hydrogen production systems are especially effective to produce low-carbon hydrogen although the production of larger sized system components can exhibit significant environmental burdens and investments. Some materials (especially iridium) and the availability of land can be limiting factors when scaling up green hydrogen production with polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. This implies that decision-makers should consider aspects beyond costs and GHG emissions when designing large-scale hydrogen production systems to avoid risks coming along with the supply of for example scarce materials
Green Hydrogen Production Technologies from Ammonia Cracking
Nov 2022
Publication
The rising technology of green hydrogen supply systems is expected to be on the horizon. Hydrogen is a clean and renewable energy source with the highest energy content by weight among the fuels and contains about six times more energy than ammonia. Meanwhile ammonia is the most popular substance as a green hydrogen carrier because it does not carry carbon and the total hydrogen content of ammonia is higher than other fuels and is thus suitable to convert to hydrogen. There are several pathways for hydrogen production. The considered aspects herein include hydrogen production technologies pathways based on the raw material and energy sources and different scales. Hydrogen can be produced from ammonia through several technologies such as electro-chemical photocatalytic and thermochemical processes that can be used at production plants and fueling stations taking into consideration the conversion efficiency reactors catalysts and their related economics. The commercial process is conducted by using expensive Ru catalysts in the ammonia converting process but is considered to be replaced by other materials such as Ni Co La and other perovskite catalysts which have high commercial potential with equivalent activity for extracting hydrogen from ammonia. For successful engraftment of ammonia to hydrogen technology into industry integration with green technologies and economic methods as well as safety aspects should be carried out.
Optimising Renewable Generation Configurations of Off-grid Green Ammonia Production System Considering Haber-Bosch Flexibility
Feb 2023
Publication
Green ammonia has received increasing interest for its potential as an energy carrier in the international trade of renewable power. This paper considers the factors that contribute to producing cost-competitive green ammonia from an exporter’s perspective. These factors include renewable resource quality across potential sites operating modes for off-grid plants and seasonal complementarity with trade buyers. The study applies a mixed-integer programming model and uses Australia as a case study because of its excellent solar and wind resources and the potential for synergy between Southern Hemisphere supply and Northern Hemisphere demand. Although renewable resources are unevenly distributed across Australia and present distinct diurnal and seasonal variability modelling shows that most of the pre-identified hydrogen hubs in each state and territory of Australia can produce cost-competitive green ammonia providing the electrolysis and Haber-Bosch processes are partially flexible to cope with the variability of renewables. Flexible operation reduces energy curtailment and leads to lower storage capacity requirements using batteries or hydrogen storage which would otherwise increase system costs. In addition an optimised combination of wind and solar can reduce the magnitude of storage required. Providing that a partially flexible Haber Bosch plant is commercially available the modelling shows a levelised cost of ammonia (LCOA) of AU$756/tonne and AU$659/tonne in 2025 and 2030 respectively. Based on these results green ammonia would be cost-competitive with grey ammonia in 2030 given a feedstock natural gas price higher than AU$14/MBtu. For green ammonia to be cost-competitive with grey ammonia assuming a lower gas price of AU$6/MBtu a carbon price would need to be in place of at least AU$123/tonne. Given that there is a greater demand for energy in winter concurrent with lower solar power production there may be opportunities for solar-based Southern Hemisphere suppliers to supply the major industrial regions most of which are located in the Northern Hemisphere.
Sizing of Hybrid Supercapacitors and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Green Hydrogen Production from PV in the Australian Climate
Feb 2023
Publication
Instead of storing the energy produced by photovoltaic panels in batteries for later use to power electric loads green hydrogen can also be produced and used in transportation heating and as a natural gas alternative. Green hydrogen is produced in a process called electrolysis. Generally the electrolyser can generate hydrogen from a fluctuating power supply such as renewables. However due to the startup time of the electrolyser and electrolyser degradation accelerated by multiple shutdowns an idle mode is required. When in idle mode the electrolyser uses 10% of the rated electrolyser load. An energy management system (EMS) shall be applied where a storage technology such as a lithium-ion capacitor or lithium-ion battery is used. This paper uses a state-machine EMS of PV microgrid for green hydrogen production and energy storage to manage the hydrogen production during the morning from solar power and in the night using the stored energy in the energy storage which is sized for different scenarios using a lithium-ion capacitor and lithium-ion battery. The mission profile and life expectancy of the lithium-ion capacitor and lithium-ion battery are evaluated considering the system’s local irradiance and temperature conditions in the Australian climate. A tradeoff between storage size and cutoffs of hydrogen production as variables of the cost function is evaluated for different scenarios. The lithium-ion capacitor and lithium-ion battery are compared for each tested scenario for an optimum lifetime. It was found that a lithium-ion battery on average is 140% oversized compared to a lithium-ion capacitor but a lithium-ion capacitor has a smaller remaining capacity of 80.2% after ten years of operation due to its higher calendar aging while LiB has 86%. It was also noticed that LiB is more affected by cycling aging while LiC is affected by calendar aging. However the average internal resistance after 10 years for the lithium-ion capacitor is 264% of the initial internal resistance while for lithium-ion battery is 346% making lithium-ion capacitor a better candidate for energy storage if it is used for grid regulation as it requires maintaining a lower internal resistance over the lifetime of the storage.
Reduction Kinetics of Hematite Powder in Hydrogen Atmosphere at Moderate Temperatures
Sep 2018
Publication
Hydrogen has received much attention in the development of direct reduction of iron ores because hydrogen metallurgy is one of the effective methods to reduce CO2 emission in the iron and steel industry. In this study the kinetic mechanism of reduction of hematite particles was studied in a hydrogen atmosphere. The phases and morphological transformation of hematite during the reduction were characterized using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy. It was found that porous magnetite was formed and the particles were degraded during the reduction. Finally sintering of the reduced iron and wüstite retarded the reductive progress. The average activation energy was extracted to be 86.1 kJ/mol and 79.1 kJ/mol according to Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) and Starink methods respectively. The reaction fraction dependent values of activation energy were suggested to be the result of multi-stage reactions during the reduction process. Furthermore the variation of activation energy value was smoothed after heat treatment of hematite particles.
Review on COx-free Hydrogen from Methane Cracking: Catalysts, Solar Energy Integration and Applications
Oct 2021
Publication
Hydrogen fuel production from methane cracking is a sustainable process compared to the ones currently in practice due to minimal greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon black that is co-produced is a valuable product and can be marketed to other industries. As this is a high-temperature process using concentrated solar energy can further improve its sustainability. In this study a detailed review is conducted to study the advancements in methane cracking for hydrogen production using different catalysts. Various solar reactors developed for methane cracking are discussed. The application of hydrogen to produce other valuable chemicals are outlined. Hydrogen carriers such as methanol dimethyl ether ammonia and urea can efficiently store hydrogen energy and enable easier transportation. Further research in the field of methane cracking is required for reactor scale-up improved economics and to reduce the problems arising from carbon deposition leading to reactor clogging and catalyst deactivation.
Comparative Study of Spark-Ignited and Pre-Chamber Hydrogen-Fueled Engine: A Computational Approach
Nov 2022
Publication
Hydrogen is a promising future fuel to enable the transition of transportation sector toward carbon neutrality. The direct utilization of H2 in internal combustion engines (ICEs) faces three major challenges: high NOx emissions severe pressure rise rates and pre-ignition at mid to high loads. In this study the potential of H2 combustion in a truck-size engine operated in spark ignition (SI) and pre-chamber (PC) mode was investigated. To mitigate the high pressure rise rate with the SI configuration the effects of three primary parameters on the engine combustion performance and NOx emissions were evaluated including the compression ratio (CR) the air–fuel ratio and the spark timing. In the simulations the severity of the pressure rise was evaluated based on the maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR). Lower compression ratios were assessed as a means to mitigate the auto-ignition while enabling a wider range of engine operation. The study showed that by lowering CR from 16.5:1 to 12.5:1 an indicated thermal efficiency of 47.5% can be achieved at 9.4 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) conditions. Aiming to restrain the auto-ignition while maintaining good efficiency growth in λ was examined under different CRs. The simulated data suggested that higher CRs require a higher λ and due to practical limitations of the boosting system λ at 4.0 was set as the limit. At a fixed spark timing using a CR of 13.5 combined with λ at 3.33 resulted in an indicated thermal efficiency of 48.6%. It was found that under such lean conditions the exhaust losses were high. Thus advancing the spark time was assessed as a possible solution. The results demonstrated the advantages of advancing the spark time where an indicated thermal efficiency exceeding 50% was achieved while maintaining a very low NOx level. Finally the optimized case in the SI mode was used to investigate the effect of using the PC. For the current design of the PC the results indicated that even though the mixture is lean the flame speed of H2 is sufficiently high to burn the lean charge without using a PC. In addition the PC design used in the current work induced a high MPRR inside the PC and MC leading to an increased tendency to engine knock. The operation with PC also increased the heat transfer losses in the MC leading to lower thermal efficiency compared to the SI mode. Consequently the PC combustion mode needs further optimizations to be employed in hydrogen engine applications.
Metallic Materials for Hydrogen Storage—A Brief Overview
Nov 2022
Publication
The research and development of materials suitable for hydrogen storage has received a great deal of attention worldwide. Due to the safety risks involved in the conventional storage of hydrogen in its gaseous or liquid phase in containers and tanks development has focused on solid-phase hydrogen storage including metals. Light metal alloys and high-entropy alloys which have a high potential for hydrogen absorption/desorption at near-standard ambient conditions are receiving interest. For the development of these alloys due to the complexity of their compositions a computational approach using CALPHAD (Calculation of Phases Diagrams) and machine learning (ML) methods that exploit thermodynamic databases of already-known and experimentally verified systems are being increasingly applied. In order to increase the absorption capacity or to decrease the desorption temperature and to stabilize the phase composition specific material preparation methods (HEBM—high-energy milling HPT—high-pressure torsion) referred to as activation must be applied for some alloys.
Gas Goes Green: Britain's Hydrogen Blending Delivery Plan
Jan 2022
Publication
Britain’s Hydrogen Blending Delivery Plan which sets out how all five of Britain’s gas grid companies will meet the Government’s target for Britain’s network of gas pipes to be ready to deliver 20% hydrogen to homes and businesses from 2023 as a replacement for natural gas.
Permeation Tests in Type-approval Regulations for Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles: Analysis and Testing Experiences at the JRC-GASTEF Facility
Jan 2023
Publication
This article presents an analysis of the permeation tests established in the current regulations for the type-approval of on board tanks in hydrogen vehicles. The analysis is done from the point of view of a test maker regarding the preparation for the execution of a permeation test. The article contains a description of the required instrumentation and set-up to carry out a permeation test according to the applicable standards and regulations. Tank conditions at the beginning of the test configuration of permeation chamber duration of the test or permeation rate to be reported are aspects that are not well-defined in regulations. In this paper we examine the challenges when carrying out a permeation test and propose possible solutions to overcome them with the intention of supporting test makers and helping the development of permeation test guidelines.
Numerical Characterization of Under-expanded Cryogenic Hydrogen Gas Jets
Sep 2022
Publication
High-resolution direct numerical simulations are conducted for under-expanded cryogenic hydrogen gas jets to characterize the nearfield flow physics. The basic flow features and jet dynamics are analyzed in detail revealing the existence of four stages during early jet development namely (a) initial penetration (b) establishment of near-nozzle expansion (c) formation of downstream compression and (d) wave propagation. Complex acoustic waves are formed around the under-expanded jets. The jet expansion can also lead to conditions for local liquefaction from the pressurized cryogenic hydrogen gas release. A series of simulations are conducted with systematically varied nozzle pressure ratios and systematically changed exit diameters. The acoustic waves around the jets are found to waken with the decrease in the nozzle pressure ratio. The increase in the nozzle pressure ratio is found to accelerate hydrogen dispersion and widen the regions with hydrogen liquefaction potential. The increase in the nozzle exit diameter also widens the region with hydrogen liquefaction potential but slows down the evolution of the flow structures.
Hydrogen Generation in Europe: Overview of Costs and Key Benefits
May 2021
Publication
The European Commission published its hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe on the 8th July 2020. This strategy brings different strands of policy action together covering the entire value chain as well as the industrial market and infrastructure angles together with the research and innovation perspective and the international dimension in order to create an enabling environment to scale up hydrogen supply and demand for a climate-neutral economy. The strategy also highlights clean hydrogen and its value chain as one of the essential areas to unlock investment to foster sustainable growth and jobs which will be critical in the context of recovery from the COVID-19 crisis. It sets strategic objectives to install at least 6 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolysers by 2024 and at least 40 GW of renewable hydrogen electrolysers by 2030 and foresees industrial applications and mobility as the two main lead markets. This report provides the evidence base established on the latest publicly available data for identifying investment opportunities in the hydrogen value chain over the period from 2020 to 2050 and the associated benefits in terms of jobs. Considering the dynamics and significant scale-up expected over a very short period of time multiple sources have been used to estimate the different values consistently and transparently. The report covers the full value chain from the production of renewable electricity as the energy source for renewable hydrogen production to the investment needs in industrial applications and hydrogen trucks and buses. Although the values range significantly across the different sources the overall trend is clear. Driving hydrogen development past the tipping point needs critical mass in investment an enabling regulatory framework new lead markets sustained research and innovation into breakthrough technologies and for bringing new solutions to the market a large-scale infrastructure network that only the EU and the single market can offer and cooperation with our third country partners. All actors public and private at European national and regional level must work together across the entire value chain to build a dynamic hydrogen ecosystem in Europe.
No more items...