United States

The permanent introduction of green hydrogen into the energy economy would require that a discriminating selection be made of its use in the sectors where its value is optimal in terms of relative cost and life cycle reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Consequently hydrogen can be used as an energy storage medium when intermittent wind and solar power exceed certain penetration in the grid likely above 40% and in road transportation right away to begin displacing gasoline and diesel fuels. To this end the proposed approach is to utilize current technologies represented by PHEV in light-duty and HEV in heavy-duty vehicles where a high-performance internal combustion engine is used with a fuel comprised of 15–20% green hydrogen and 85–89% green methane depending on vehicle type. This fuel designated as RHYME takes advantage of the best attributes of hydrogen and methane results in lower life cycle carbon dioxide emissions than BEVs or FCEVs and offers a cost-effective and pragmatic approach both locally as well as globally in establishing hydrogen as part of the energy economy over the next ten to thirty years.

The European Union set a 2050 decarbonization target in the Paris Agreement to reduce carbon emissions by 90–95% relative to 1990 emission levels. The path toward achieving those deep decarbonization targets can take various shapes but will surely include a portfolio of economy-wide low-carbon energy technologies/options. The growth of the intermittent renewable power sources in the grid mix has helped reduce the carbon footprint of the electric power sector. Under the need for decarbonizing the electric power sector we simulated a low-carbon power system. We investigated the role of hydrogen for future electric power systems under current cost projections. The model optimizes the power generation mix economically for a given carbon constraint. The generation mix consists of intermittent renewable power sources (solar and wind) and dispatchable gas turbine and combined cycle units fuelled by natural gas with carbon capture and sequestration as well as hydrogen. We created several scenarios with battery storage options pumped hydro hydrogen storage and demand-side response (DSR). The results show that energy storage replaces power generation and pumped hydro entirely replaces battery storage under given conditions. The availability of pumped hydro storage and demand-side response reduced the total cost as well as the combination of solar photovoltaic and pumped hydro storage. Demand-side response reduces relatively costly dispatchable power generation reduces annual power generation halves the shadow carbon price and is a viable alternative to energy storage. The carbon constrain defines the generation mix and initializes the integration of hydrogen (H₂). Although the model rates power to gas with hydrogen as not economically viable in this power system under the given conditions and assumptions hydrogen is important for hard-to-abate sectors and enables sector coupling in a real energy system. This study discusses the potential for hydrogen beyond this model approach and shows the differences between cost optimization models and real-world feasibility.

In the field of energy storage recently investigated nanocomposites show promise in terms of high hydrogen uptake and release with enhancement in the reaction kinetics. Among several carbonaceous nanovariants like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) fullerenes and graphitic nanofibers reveal reversible hydrogen sorption characteristics at 77 K due to their van der Waals interaction. The spillover mechanism combining Pd nanoparticles on the host metal-organic framework (MOF) show room temperature uptake of hydrogen. Metal or complex hydrides either in the nanocomposite form and its subset nanocatalyst dispersed alloy phases illustrate the concept of nanoengineering and nanoconfinement of particles with tailor-made properties for reversible hydrogen storage. Another class of materials comprising polymeric nanostructures such as conducting polyaniline and their functionalized nanocomposites are versatile hydrogen storage materials because of their unique size high specific surface-area pore-volume and bulk properties. The salient features of nanocomposite materials for reversible hydrogen storage are reviewed and discussed.

Globally the accelerating use of renewable energy sources enabled by increased efficiencies and reduced costs and driven by the need to mitigate the effects of climate change has significantly increased research in the areas of renewable energy production storage distribution and end-use. Central to this discussion is the use of hydrogen as a clean efficient energy vector for energy storage. This review by experts of Task 32 “Hydrogen-based Energy Storage” of the International Energy Agency Hydrogen TCP reports on the development over the last 6 years of hydrogen storage materials methods and techniques including electrochemical and thermal storage systems. An overview is given on the background to the various methods the current state of development and the future prospects. The following areas are covered; porous materials liquid hydrogen carriers complex hydrides intermetallic hydrides electro-chemical storage of energy thermal energy storage hydrogen energy systems and an outlook is presented for future prospects and research on hydrogen-based energy storage

The NASA Safety Standard which establishes a uniform process for hydrogen system design materials selection operation storage and transportation is presented. The guidelines include suggestions for safely storing handling and using hydrogen in gaseous (GH2) liquid (LH2) or slush (SLH2) form whether used as a propellant or non-propellant. The handbook contains 9 chapters detailing properties and hazards facility design design of components materials compatibility detection and transportation. Chapter 10 serves as a reference and the appendices contained therein include: assessment examples; scaling laws explosions blast effects and fragmentation; codes standards and NASA directives; and relief devices along with a list of tables and figures abbreviations a glossary and an index for ease of use. The intent of the handbook is to provide enough information that it can be used alone but at the same time reference data sources that can provide much more detail if required.

The use of hydrogen as a clean and renewable alternative to fossil fuels requires a suite of flammability mitigating technologies particularly robust sensors for hydrogen leak detection and concentration monitoring. To this end we have developed a class of lightweight optical hydrogen sensors based on a metasurface of Pd nano-patchy particle arrays which fulfills the increasing requirements of a safe hydrogen fuel sensing system with no risk of sparking. The structure of the optical sensor is readily nano-engineered to yield extraordinarily rapid response to hydrogen gas (<3 s at 1 mbar H2) with a high degree of accuracy (<5%). By incorporating 20% Ag Au or Co the sensing performances of the Pd-alloy sensor are significantly enhanced especially for the Pd80Co20 sensor whose optical response time at 1 mbar of H2 is just ~0.85 s while preserving the excellent accuracy (<2.5%) limit of detection (2.5 ppm) and robustness against aging temperature and interfering gases. The superior performance of our sensor places it among the fastest and most sensitive optical hydrogen sensors.

Microwave heating offers a number of advantages over conventional heating methods such as rapid and volumetric heating precise temperature control energy efficiency and lower temperature gradient. In this article we demonstrate the use of 2450 MHz microwave traveling wave reactor to heat the catalyst bed for thermo-catalytic upgrading of pyrolysis vapors. HZSM-5 catalyst was tested at three different temperatures (290 330  and 370°C) at a catalyst to biomass ratio of 2. Results were compared with conventional heating and induction heating method of catalyst bed. The yields of aromatic compounds and coke deposition were dependent on temperature and method of heating. Microwave heating yielded higher aromatic compounds and lower coke deposition. Microwave heating was also energy efficient compared to conventional reactors. The rate of catalyst deterioration was lower for catalyst heated in microwave system.

Photocatalytic hydrogen generation is one of the most promising solutions to convert solar power into green chemical energy. In this work a multi-component TiO₂–Ag–Cu₂O composite was obtained through simple impregnation-calcination of Cu₂O and subsequent photodeposition of Ag onto electrospun TiO₂ nanotubes. The resulting TiO₂–Ag–Cu₂O photocatalyst exhibits excellent photocatalytic H₂ evolution activity due to the synergetic effect of Ag and Cu₂O on electrospun TiO₂nanotubes. A dual Z-scheme charge transfer pathway for photocatalytic reactions over TiO₂–Ag–Cu₂O composite was proposed and discussed. This work provides a prototype for designing Z-scheme photocatalyst with Ag as an electron mediator.

To achieve the Paris Agreement’s long-term temperature goal current energy systems must be transformed. Australia represents an interesting case for energy system transformation modelling: with a power system dominated by fossil fuels and specifically with a heavy coal component there is at the same time a vast potential for expansion and use of renewables. We used the multi-sectoral Australian Energy Modelling System (AUSeMOSYS) to perform an integrated analysis of implications for the electricity transport and selected industry sectors to the mid-century. The state-level resolution allows representation of regional discrepancies in renewable supply and the quantification of inter-regional grid extensions necessary for the physical integration of variable renewables. We investigated the impacts of different CO₂ budgets and selected key factors on energy system transformation. Results indicate that coal-fired generation has to be phased out completely by 2030 and a fully renewable electricity supply achieved in the 2030s according to the cost-optimal pathway implied by the 1.5 °C Paris Agreement-compatible carbon budget. Wind and solar PV can play a dominant role in decarbonizing Australia’s energy system with continuous growth of demand due to the strong electrification of linked energy sectors.

Public attention to climate change challenges our locked-in fossil fuel-dependent energy sector. Natural gas is replacing other fossil fuels in our energy mix. One way to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) impact of fossil natural gas is to replace it with renewable natural gas (RNG). The benefits of utilizing RNG are that it has no climate change impact when combusted and utilized in the same applications as fossil natural gas. RNG can be injected into the gas grid used as a transportation fuel or used for heating and electricity generation. Less common applications include utilizing RNG to produce chemicals such as methanol dimethyl ether and ammonia. The GHG impact should be quantified before committing to RNG. This study quantifies the potential production of biogas (i.e. the precursor to RNG) and RNG from agricultural and waste sources in New York State (NYS). It is unique because it is the first study to provide this analysis. The results showed that only about 10% of the state’s resources are used to generate biogas of which a small fraction is processed to RNG on the only two operational RNG facilities in the state. The impact of incorporating a second renewable substitute for fossil natural gas “green” hydrogen is also analyzed. It revealed that injecting RNG and “green” hydrogen gas into the pipeline system can reduce up to 20% of the state’s carbon emissions resulting from fossil natural gas usage which is a significant GHG reduction. Policy analysis for NYS shows that several state and federal policies support RNG production. However the value of RNG can be increased 10-fold by applying a similar incentive policy to California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS).

The hazardous effects of pollutants from conventional fuel vehicles have caused the scientific world to move towards environmentally friendly energy sources. Though we have various renewable energy sources the perfect one to use as an energy source for vehicles is hydrogen. Like electricity hydrogen is an energy carrier that has the ability to deliver incredible amounts of energy. Onboard hydrogen storage in vehicles is an important factor that should be considered when designing fuel cell vehicles. In this study a recent development in hydrogen fuel cell engines is reviewed to scrutinize the feasibility of using hydrogen as a major fuel in transportation systems. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that can produce electricity by allowing chemical gases and oxidants as reactants. With anodes and electrolytes the fuel cell splits the cation and the anion in the reactant to produce electricity. Fuel cells use reactants which are not harmful to the environment and produce water as a product of the chemical reaction. As hydrogen is one of the most efficient energy carriers the fuel cell can produce direct current (DC) power to run the electric car. By integrating a hydrogen fuel cell with batteries and the control system with strategies one can produce a sustainable hybrid car

In the search for new efficient photo-catalysts for hydrogen production through water splitting the main attention has been paid to tuning the band gap width and its position with respect to vacuum level. However actual electro-catalytic activity for the water oxidation reaction on a catalyst surface is no less important than those quantities. In this work we evaluate from first principles the thermodynamics of the reaction on relatively new candidates for water splitting: two-dimensional C₂N and that doped with phosphorus. We find that the 4-step reaction usually expected for water splitting will not proceed on these systems resulting in oxygen atoms left strongly adsorbed to the surface. Another option a 3-step reaction is also found to be unfavorable. We also test an effect of higher oxygen coverage on the reaction thermodynamics as suggested elsewhere. We find that indeed the doubled O-coverage makes the 4-step reaction feasible for the doped C₂N. However an unacceptably high anode potential is required to make this reaction proceed. We thus conclude that the materials under consideration may not be efficient electro-catalysts for water splitting.

The current status of a project is described which aims to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of converting the vast wind energy available over the globe’s oceans and lakes into storable energy. To this end autonomous high-performance sailing ships are equipped with hydrokinetic turbines whose output is stored either in electric batteries or is fed into electrolysers to produce hydrogen which then is compressed and stored in tanks. In the present paper the previous analytical studies which showed the potential of this “energy ship concept” are summarized and progress on its hardware demonstration is reported involving the conversion of a model sailboat to autonomous operation. The paper concludes with a discussion of the potential of this concept to achieve the IPCC-mandated requirement of reducing the global CO₂ emissions by about 45% by 2030 reaching net zero by 2050.

Here we report direct physical evidence that confinement of molecular hydrogen (H2) in an optimized nanoporous carbon results in accumulation of hydrogen with characteristics commensurate with solid H2 at temperatures up to 67 K above the liquid vapor critical temperature of bulk H2. This extreme densification is attributed to confinement of H2 molecules in the optimally sized micropores and occurs at pressures as low as 0.02 MPa. The quantities of contained solid-like H2 increased with pressure and were directly evaluated using in situ inelastic neutron scattering and confirmed by analysis of gas sorption isotherms. The demonstration of the existence of solid-like H2 challenges the existing assumption that supercritical hydrogen confined in nanopores has an upper limit of liquid H2 density. Thus this insight offers opportunities for the development of more accurate models for the evaluation and design of nanoporous materials for high capacity adsorptive hydrogen storage.

Reducing the cost of delivering hydrogen to fuelling stations and dispensing it into fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is one critical element of efforts to increase the cost-competitiveness of FCEVs. Today hydrogen is primarily delivered to stations by trucks. Pipeline delivery is much rarer: one urban U.S. station has been supplied with 800-psi hydrogen from an industrial hydrogen pipeline since 2011 and a German station on the edge of an industrial park has been supplied with 13000-psi hydrogen from a pipeline since 2006. This article compares the economics of existing U.S. hydrogen delivery methods with the economics of a high-pressure scalable intra-city pipeline system referred to here as the “HyLine” system. In the HyLine system hydrogen would be produced at urban industrial or commercial sites compressed to 15000 psi stored at centralized facilities delivered via high-pressure pipeline to retail stations and dispensed directly into FCEVs. Our analysis of retail fuelling station economics in Los Angeles suggests that as FCEV demand for hydrogen in an area becomes sufficiently dense pipeline hydrogen delivery gains an economic advantage over truck delivery. The HyLine approach would also enable cheaper dispensed hydrogen compared with lower-pressure pipeline delivery owing to economies of scale associated with integrated compression and storage. In the largest-scale fuelling scenario analyzed (a network of 24 stations with capacities of 1500 kg/d each and hydrogen produced via steam methane reforming) HyLine could potentially achieve a profited hydrogen cost of $5.3/kg which is approximately equivalent to a gasoline cost of $2.7/gal (assuming FCEVs offer twice the fuel economy of internal combustion engine vehicles and vehicle cost is competitive). It is important to note that significant effort would be required to develop technical knowledge codes and standards that would enable a HyLine system to be viable. However our preliminary analysis suggests that the HyLine approach merits further consideration based on its potential economic advantages. These advantages could also include the value of minimizing retail space used by hydrogen compression and storage sited at fuelling stations which is not reflected in our analysis.

Hydrogen is often viewed as an important energy carrier in a future decarbonized world. Currently most hydrogen is produced by steam reforming of methane in natural gas (“gray hydrogen”) with high carbon dioxide emissions. Increasingly many propose using carbon capture and storage to reduce these emissions producing so-called “blue hydrogen” frequently promoted as low emissions. We undertake the first effort in a peer-reviewed paper to examine the lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of blue hydrogen accounting for emissions of both carbon dioxide and unburned fugitive methane. Far from being low carbon greenhouse gas emissions from the production of blue hydrogen are quite high particularly due to the release of fugitive methane. For our default assumptions (3.5% emission rate of methane from natural gas and a 20-year global warming potential) total carbon dioxide equivalent emissions for blue hydrogen are only 9%-12% less than for gray hydrogen. While carbon dioxide emissions are lower fugitive methane emissions for blue hydrogen are higher than for gray hydrogen because of an increased use of natural gas to power the carbon capture. Perhaps surprisingly the greenhouse gas footprint of blue hydrogen is more than 20% greater than burning natural gas or coal for heat and some 60% greater than burning diesel oil for heat again with our default assumptions. In a sensitivity analysis in which the methane emission rate from natural gas is reduced to a low value of 1.54% greenhouse gas emissions from blue hydrogen are still greater than from simply burning natural gas and are only 18%-25% less than for gray hydrogen. Our analysis assumes that captured carbon dioxide can be stored indefinitely an optimistic and unproven assumption. Even if true though the use of blue hydrogen appears difficult to justify on climate ground

The Pd-H system has attracted extensive attention. Pd can absorb considerable amount of H at room temperature this ability is reversible so it is suitable for multiple energy applications. Pd-Ag alloys possess higher H permeability solubility and narrower miscibility gap with better mechanical properties than pure Pd but sulfur poisoning remains an issue. Pd-Cu alloys have excellent resistance to sulfur and carbon monoxide poisoning and hydrogen embrittlement good mechanical properties and broader temperature working environments over pure Pd but relatively lower hydrogen permeability and solubility than pure Pd and Pd-Ag alloys. This suggests that alloying Pd with Ag and Cu to create Pd-Ag-Cu ternary alloys can optimize the overall performance and substantially lowers the cost. Thus in this paper we provide the first embedded atom method potentials for the quaternary hydrides Pd_1-y-zAgyCu_zH_x. The fully analytical potentials are fitted utilizing the central atom method without performing time-consuming molecular dynamics simulations.

The European Community requires a vehicle-level bonfire test for vehicles using plastic fuel tanks for conventional fuels (ECE R-34 Annex 5). A similar test could be applied to hydrogen-fuelled vehicles. It would test a realistic vehicle with its complete fuel and safety systems. An advantage of such a test is that the same test could be applied independent of the hydrogen storage technology (compressed gas liquid or hydride). There are currently standards for bonfire testing of a bare Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) tank and its Pressure Relief Device (PRD). This standard is FMVSS 304 in the U.S. and ISO 15869-1 in Europe. Japan has a similar standard. It requires that a bare tank and its associated PRD be subjected to a propane flame for 20 minutes. The tank must either survive or safely vent its contents. No modern composite wound tank is expected to survive for 20 minutes – so this is not a tank test but really a PRD test. The test procedure requires the PRD to be shielded from direct impingement of the flames – but the shield is not well specified. If it shields the PRD too well the PRD will not activate and the tank will burst. This paper describes the results of a CNG and a hydrogen tank burst from such tests. The mechanical energy released is enormous. It is simply unacceptable to allow the tank to burst – the PRD and venting system must work. Organizations in the U.S Europe and Japan are in the process of modifying the CNG tank bonfire test for compressed hydrogen storage. A bare tank with a single PRD is not a good simulation of a hydrogen fuel system installed in an actual vehicle. There will usually be multiple tanks plumbed together at either the tank pressure or at the intermediate pressure (after the pressure regulator). There may be more than one PRD. The tank may be shielded (from debris) or insulated to protect it from an underbody pool fire. Also the heat transfer from the simulated pool fire (propane flame) will be very different when mounted in a vehicle versus the bare tank test. A vehicle-level pool fire test will alleviate these problems. It is therefore recommended that the bare tank test be replaced by or augmented with a vehicle-level bonfire test similar to ECE R-34 Annex 5.

Replacement of precious catalyst with cost-effective alternatives would be significantly beneficial for hydrogen production via electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). All candidates thus far are exclusively metallic catalysts which suffer inherent corrosion and oxidation susceptibility during acidic proton-exchange membrane electrolysis. Herein based on theoretical predictions we designed and synthesized nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) dual-doped graphene as a non-metallic electrocatalyst for sustainable and efficient hydrogen production. The N and Phetero-atoms could coactivate the adjacent C atom in the graphene matrix by affecting its valence orbital energy levels to induce a synergistically enhanced reactivity toward HER. As a result the dual-doped graphene showed higher electrocatalytic HER activity than single-doped ones and comparable performance to some of the traditional metallic catalysts.

Proton conducting SmNiO₃ (SNO) thin films were grown on (001) LaAlO₃ substrates for systematically investigating the proton transport properties. X-ray Diffraction and Atomic Force Microscopy studies reveal that the as-grown SNO thin films have good single crystallinity and smooth surface morphology. The electrical conductivity measurements in air indicate a peak at 473 K in the temperature dependence of the resistance of the SNO films probably due to oxygen loss on heating. A Metal-Insulator-Transition occurs at 373 K for the films after annealing at 873 K in air. In a hydrogen atmosphere (3% H2/97% N₂) an anomalous peak in the resistance is found at 685 K on the first heating cycle. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy studies as a function of temperature indicate that the SNO films have a high ionic conductivity (0.030 S/cm at 773 K) in a hydrogen atmosphere. The activation energy for proton conductivity was determined to be 0.23 eV at 473–773 K and 0.37 eV at 773–973 K respectively. These findings demonstrate that SNO thin films have good proton conductivity and are good candidate electrolytes for low temperature proton-conducting Solid Oxide Fuel Cells.

A suitably trained emergency response force is an essential component for safe implementation of any type of fuel infrastructure. Because of the relative newness of hydrogen as a fuel however appropriate emergency response procedures are not yet well understood by responder workforces across the United States and around the world. A significant near-term training effort is needed to ensure that the future hydrogen infrastructure can be developed and operated with acceptable incident risk. Efforts are presently underway at the HAMMER site in Washington State to develop curricula related to hydrogen properties and behavior identification of problems (e.g. incorrect equipment installation) and appropriate response and other relevant information intended for classroom instruction. In addition a number of hands-on training props are planned for realistic simulation of hydrogen incidents in order to convey proper response procedures in high-pressure cryogenic high leakage or other high-risk accident situations. Surveys of emergency responders fire marshals regulatory authorities manufacturers and others are being undertaken to ensure that the capabilities developed and offered at HAMMER will meet the acknowledged need. This paper describes the training curricula and props anticipated at HAMMER and is intended to provide useful information to others planning similar training programs.

This study is aimed at the validation of the pressure peaking phenomenon against laboratory-scale experiments. The phenomenon was discovered recently as a result of analytical and numerical studies performed at Ulster University. The phenomenon is characterized by the existence of a peak on the overpressure transient in an enclosure with vent(s) at some conditions. The peak overpressure can significantly exceed the steady-state pressure and jeopardise a civil structure integrity causing serious life safety and property protection problems. However the experimental validation of the phenomenon was absent until recently. The validation experiments were performed at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology within the framework of the HyIndoor project. Tests were carried out with release of three different gases (air helium and hydrogen) within a laboratory-scale enclosure of about 1 m3 volume with a vent of comparatively small size. The model of pressure peaking phenomenon reproduced closely the experimental pressure dynamics within the enclosure for all three used gases. The prediction of pressure peaking phenomenon consists of two steps which are explained in detail. Examples of calculation for typical hydrogen applications are presented.

We have developed a web-based hydrogen safety class and are developing a hands-on hydrogen safety class. The 4-h web-based class is directed to laboratory researchers who need basic hydrogen safety information (free online access at http://www.h2labsafety.org/) and it addresses hydrogen fundamentals: properties pressure and cryogenic safety emergency response and codes and standards. Technical operators in charge of building and testing experimental hydrogen equipment will also soon benefit from a more comprehensive 3-day hands-on safety class that will present detailed information for installation testing and operation of hydrogen pressurized systems. The hands-on class includes a full day of classroom instruction followed by two days of laboratory work where students assemble test and operate a pressure system based on a schematic and component description.

Stationary pressure vessels for the storage of large volumes of gaseous hydrogen at high pressure (>70 MPa) are typically manufactured from Cr-Mo steels. These steels display hydrogen-enhanced fatigue crack growth but pressure vessels can be manufactured using defect-tolerant design methodologies. However storage volumes are limited by the wall thickness that can be reliably manufactured for quench and tempered Cr-Mo steels typically not more than 25-35 mm. High-hardenability steels can be manufactured with thicker walls which enables larger diameter pressure vessels and larger storage volumes. The goal of this study is to assess the fracture and fatigue response of high hardenability Ni-Cr-Mo pressure vessel steels for use in high-pressure hydrogen service at pressure in excess of 1000 bar. Standardized fatigue crack growth tests were performed in gaseous hydrogen at frequency of 1Hz and for R-ratios in the range of 0.1 to 0.7. Elastic-plastic fracture toughness measurements were also performed. The measured fatigue and fracture behavior is placed into the context of previous studies on fatigue and fracture of Cr-Mo steels for gaseous hydrogen.

During the current global financial crisis the term “Risk Management” is often heard. Just as the causes for the financial problems are elusive so is a complete definition of what Risk Management means. The answer is highly dependent upon your perceptions of “risk” and your appetite for assuming risks. The proposed paper will explore these issues with some brief case studies as they apply to hydrogen industrial applications hydrogen refuelling stations and fuel cell technologies for distributed generation.

Specifically the paper will identify the various risk exposures from the perspective of the project developers original equipment suppliers end users project funding sources and traditional insurance providers. What makes this evaluation intriguing is that it is a mixed bag of output capacities Combine Heat & Power (CHP) potential and technology maturity. Therefore the application considerations must be part of any overall Risk Management program.