Norway

We investigate the challenges and options for repurposing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation. Challenges of re-purposing are mainly related to safety and due to the risk of hydrogen embrittlement of pipeline steels and the smaller molecular size of the gas. From an economic perspective the lower volumetric energy density of hydrogen compared to natural gas is a challenge. We investigate three pipeline repurposing options in depth: a) no modification to the pipeline but enhanced maintenance b) use of gaseous inhibitors and c) the pipe-in-pipe approach. The levelized costs of transportation of these options are compared for the case of the German Norddeutsche Erdgasleitung (NEL) pipeline. We find a similar cost range for all three options. This indicates that other criteria such as the sunk costs public acceptance and consumer requirements are likely to shape the decision making for gas pipeline repurposing.

Hydrogen jet fire occurs with high probability when hydrogen leaks from high-pressure equipment. The hydrogen jet fire is characterized by its high velocity and energy. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) numerical analysis is a prominent way to predict the potential hazards associated with hydrogen jet fire. Validation of the CFD model is essential to ensure and quantify the accuracy of numerical results. This study focuses on the validation of the hydrogen jet fire model using Fire Dynamic Simulation (FDS). Hydrogen release is modeled using high-speed Lagrangian particles released from a virtual nozzle thus avoiding the modeling of the actual nozzle. The mesh size sensitivity analysis of the model is carried out in a container-size domain with 0.04m – 0.08m resolution of the jet. The model is validated by comparing gas temperatures and heat fluxes with test data. The promising results demonstrated that the model could predict the hazardous influence of the jet fire.

This paper proposes a technical and cost analysis model to assess the change in costs of a zeroemission high-speed ferry when retrofitting from diesel to green hydrogen. Both compressed gas and liquid hydrogen are examined. Different scenarios explore energy demand energy losses fuel consumption and cost-effectiveness. The methodology explores how variation in the ferry's total weight and equipment efficiency across scenarios impact results. Applied to an existing diesel high-speed ferry on one of Norway's longest routes the study under certain assumptions identifies compressed hydrogen gas as the current most economical option despite its higher energy consumption. Although the energy consumption of the compressed hydrogen ferry is slightly more than the liquid hydrogen counterpart its operating expenses are considerably lower and comparable to the existing diesel ferry on the route. However constructing large hydrogen liquefaction plants could reduce liquid hydrogen's cost and make it competitive with both diesel and compressed hydrogen gas. Moreover liquid hydrogen allows the use of a superconducting motor to enhance efficiency. Operating the ferry with liquid hydrogen and a superconducting motor besides its technical advantages offers promising economic viability in the future comparable to diesel and compressed hydrogen gas options. Reducing the ferry's speed and optimizing equipment improves fuel efficiency and economic viability. This research provides valuable insights into sustainable zero-emission high-speed ferries powered by green hydrogen.

Safety and reliability have long been recognized as key issues for the development commercialization and implementation of new technologies and infrastructure and hydrogen systems are no exception to this rule. Reliability engineering quantitative risk assessment (QRA) and knowledge exchange each play a key role in proactive addressing safety – before problems happen – and help us learn from problems if they happen. Many international research activities are focusing on both reliability and risk assessment for hydrogen systems. However the element of knowledge exchange is sometimes less visible. To support international collaboration and knowledge exchange the International Energy Agency (IEA) convened a new Technology Collaboration Program “Task 43: Safety and Regulatory Aspects of Emerging Large Scale Hydrogen Energy Applications” started in June 2022. Within Task 43 Subtask E focuses on Hydrogen Systems Safety. This paper discusses the structure of the Hydrogen Systems Safety subtask and the aligned activities and introduces opportunities for future work.

To meet the new regulation for the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure which sets targets for electric recharging and hydrogen refuelling infrastructure by 2025 or 2030 a large infrastructure comprising trucksuitable hydrogen refuelling stations will soon be required. However further standardisation is required to support the uptake of hydrogen for heavy-duty transport for Europe’s green energy future. Hydrogen-powered vehicles require pure hydrogen as some contaminants can reduce the performance of the fuel cell even at very low levels. Even if previous projects have paved the way for the development of the European quality infrastructure for hydrogen conformity assessment sampling systems and methods have yet to be developed for heavy-duty hydrogen refuelling stations (HD-HRS). This study reviews different aspects of the sampling of hydrogen at heavy-duty hydrogen refuelling stations for purity assessment with a focus on the current and future specifications and operations at HD-HRS. This study describes the state-of-the art of sampling systems currently under development for use at HD-HRS and highlights a number of aspects which must be taken into consideration to ensure safe and accurate sampling: risk assessment for the whole sampling exercise selection of cylinders methods to prepare cylinders before the sampling filling pressure and venting of the sampling systems.

The utilization of hydrogen fuel in gas turbines brings significant changes to the thermophysical properties of flue gas including higher specific heat capacities and an enhanced steam content. Therefore hydrogen-fueled gas turbines are susceptible to health degradation in the form of steam-induced corrosion and erosion in the hot gas path. In this context the fault diagnosis of hydrogen-fueled gas turbines becomes indispensable. To the authors’ knowledge there is a scarcity of fault diagnosis studies for retrofitted gas turbines considering hydrogen as a potential fuel. The present study however develops an artificial neural network (ANN)-based fault diagnosis model using the MATLAB environment. Prior to the fault detection isolation and identification modules physics-based performance data of a 100 kW micro gas turbine (MGT) were synthesized using the GasTurb tool. An ANN-based classification algorithm showed a 96.2% classification accuracy for the fault detection and isolation. Moreover the feedforward neural network-based regression algorithm showed quite good training testing and validation accuracies in terms of the root mean square error (RMSE). The study revealed that the presence of hydrogen-induced corrosion faults (both as a single corrosion fault or as simultaneous fouling and corrosion) led to false alarms thereby prompting other incorrect faults during the fault detection and isolation modules. Additionally the performance of the fault identification module for the hydrogen fuel scenario was found to be marginally lower than that of the natural gas case due to assumption of small magnitudes of faults arising from hydrogen-induced corrosion.

Social risk is a comprehensive concept that considers not only internal/external physical risks but also risks (which are multiple varied and diverse) associated with social activity. It should be considered from diverse perspectives and requires a comprehensive evaluation framework that takes into account the synergistic impact of each element on others rather than evaluating each risk individually. Social risk assessment is an approach that is not limited to internal system risk from an engineering perspective but also considers the stakeholders development stage and societal readiness and resilience to change. This study aimed to introduce a social risk approach to assess the public safety of large-scale hydrogen systems. Guidelines for comprehensive social risk assessment were developed to conduct appropriate risk assessments for advanced science and technology activities with high uncertainties to predict major impacts on society before an accident occurs and to take measures to mitigate the damage and to ensure good governance are in place to facilitate emergency response and recovery in addition to preventive measures. In a case study this approach was applied to a hydrogen refueling station in Japan and risk-based multidisciplinary approaches were introduced. These approaches can be an effective supporting tool for social implementation with respect to large-scale hydrogen systems such as liquefied hydrogen storage tanks. The guidelines for social risk assessment of large-scale hydrogen systems are under the International Energy Agency Technology Collaboration Program Hydrogen Safety Task 43. This study presents potential case studies of social risk assessment for large-scale hydrogen systems for future.

With the long-standing efforts of green transition in our society underground hydrogen storage (UHS) has emerged as a viable solution to buffering seasonal fluctuations of renewable energy supplies and demands. Like operations in hydrocarbon production and geological CO2 storage a successful UHS project requires a good understanding of subsurface formations while having different operational objectives and practical challenges. Similar to the situations in hydrocarbon production and geological CO2 storage in UHS problems the information of subsurface formations at the field level cannot be obtained through direct measurements due to the resulting high costs. As such there is a need for subsurface characterization and monitoring at the field scale which uses a certain history matching algorithm to calibrate a numerical subsurface model based on available field data. Whereas subsurface characterization and monitoring have been widely used in hydrocarbon production activities for a better understanding of hydrocarbon reservoirs to the best of our knowledge at present it appears to be a relatively less touched area in UHS problems. This work aims to narrow this noticed gap and investigates the use of an ensemble-based workflow for subsurface characterization and monitoring in a 3D UHS case study. Numerical results in this case study indicate that the ensemble-based workflow works reasonably well while also identifying some particular challenges that would be relevant to real-world problems.

Can Norway be an important hydrogen exporter to the European Union (EU) by 2030? We explore three scenarios in which Norway’s hydrogen export market may develop: A Business-as-usual B Moderate Onshore C Accelerated Offshore. Applying a sector-coupled energy system model we examine the techno-economic viability spatial and socio-economic considerations for blue and green hydrogen export in the form of ammonia by ship. Our results estimate the costs of low-carbon hydrogen to be 3.5–7.3€/kg hydrogen. While Norway may be cost-competitive in blue hydrogen exports to the EU its sustainability is limited by the reliance on natural gas and the nascent infrastructure for carbon transport and storage. For green hydrogen exports Norway may leverage its strong relations with the EU but is less cost-competitive than countries like Chile and Morocco which benefit from cheaper solar power. For all scenarios significant land use is needed to generate enough renewable energy. Developing a green hydrogen-based export market requires policy support and strategic investments in technology infrastructure and stakeholder engagement ensuring a more equitable distribution of renewable installations across Norway and national security in the north. Using carbon capture and storage technologies and offshore wind to decarbonise the offshore platforms is a win-win solution that would leave more electricity for developing new industries and demonstrate the economic viability of these technologies. Finally for Norway to become a key hydrogen exporter to the EU will require a balanced approach that emphasises public acceptance and careful land use management to avoid costly consequences.

Widespread use of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels as energy carriers in society may enable the gradual replacement of fossil fuels by renewable energy sources. Although the development and deployment of the associated technologies and infrastructures represent a considerable bottleneck it is generally acknowledged that neither the technical feasibility nor the economic viability alone will determine the extent of the future use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Public perception beliefs awareness and knowledge about hydrogen will play a significant role in the further development of the hydrogen economy. To this end the present study examines public perception and awareness of hydrogen in Norway. The approach adopted entailed an open-ended question examining spontaneous associations with the term ‘hydrogen’. The question was fielded to 2276 participants in Wave 25 of the Norwegian Citizen Panel (NCP) an on-line panel that derives random samples from the general population registry. The analysis focused on classifying the responses into negative associations (i.e. barriers towards widespread implementation of hydrogen in society) neutral associations (e.g. basic facts) and positive associations (i.e. drivers towards widespread implementation of hydrogen in society). Each of the 2194 responses were individually assessed by five researchers. The majority of the responses highlighted neutral associations using words such as ‘gas’ ‘water’ and ‘element’. When considering barriers vs. drivers the overall responses tend towards positive associations. Many respondents perceive hydrogen as a clean and environmentally friendly fuel and hydrogen technologies are often associated with the future. The negative sentiments were typically associated with words such as ‘explosive’ ‘hazardous’ and ‘expensive’. Despite an increase in the mentioning of safety-related properties relative to a previous study in the same region the frequency of such references was rather low (4%). The responses also reveal various misconceptions such as hydrogen as a prospective ‘source’ of clean energy.