France

The goals of the long-term tests were to see the impact of blends of hydrogen and natural gas on the technical condition of the appliances and their performance after several hours of operation. To do so they were run through an accelerated test program amounting to more than 3000 testing hours for the boilers and more than 2500 testing hours for the cookers. The percentage of hydrogen in the test gas was 30% by volume. Three boilers and two cookers were tested by DGC and two boilers by GWI. This report describes the test protocol the results and analysis on the seven appliances tested.

We investigate the implications of conducting hydrogen-assisted fatigue crack growth experiments in a hydrogen gas environment (in-situ hydrogen charging) or in air (following exposure to hydrogen gas). The study is conducted on welded 42CrMo4 steel a primary candidate for the future hydrogen transport infrastructure allowing us to additionally gain insight into the differences in behavior between the base steel and the coarse grain heat affected zone. The results reveal significant differences between the two testing approaches and the two weld regions. The differences are particularly remarkable for the comparison of testing methodologies with fatigue crack growth rates being more than one order of magnitude higher over relevant loading regimes when the samples are tested in a hydrogen-containing environment relative to the pre-charged samples. Aided by finite element modelling and microscopy analysis these differences are discussed and rationalized. Independent of the testing approach the heat affected zone showed a higher susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement. Similar microstructural behavior is observed for both testing approaches with the base metal exhibiting martensite lath decohesion while the heat affected zone experienced both martensite lath decohesion and intergranular fracture.

In the case of a severe nuclear power plant accident hydrogen gas formation may occur from the core degradation and cooling water evaporation and subsequent oxidation of zircaloy. These phenomena increase the risk of hazardous combustion events in the reactor especially when combined with an ignition source. If not handled carefully these types of accidents can cause severe damage to the reactor building with potential radioactive effects on the environment. Although hydrogen-air combustion has been investigated before hydrogen-air-steam mixtures remain unstudied under reactor-like conditions. Thus this study investigated such mixtures’ combustion regimes. A closed tube of 318 liters (7.65m tall and 0.23m inner diameter) measures the flame speed flame propagation and shock wave behaviors for 11-15 %vol hydrogen mixtures combined with 0 20 or 30 %vol steam and air. Thus both the effect of steam and hydrogen content was investigated and compared. The experimental setup combined photomultiplier tubes pressure sensors and shock detectors to give a full view of the different combustion regimes. A number of obstacles changed the in-chamber turbulence during flame propagation to provide further reactor-like environments. This changed turbulence affected the combustion regimes and enhanced the flame speed for some cases. The results showed varying combustion behaviors depending on the water vapor concentration where a higher concentration meant a lower flame speed reduced pressure load and sometimes combustion extinction. At 0 %vol steam dilution the flame speed remained supersonic for all H2 concentrations while at 30 %vol steam dilution the flame speed remained subsonic for all H2 concentrations. Thus with high levels of steam dilution the risk for shock waves leading to potential reactor building destruction decreases."

Throughout the history of the mining petroleum process and nuclear industries continuous efforts have been made to develop and improve measures to prevent and mitigate accidental explosions. Over the coming decades energy systems are expected to undergo a transition towards sustainable use of conventional hydrocarbons and an increasing share of renewable energy sources in the global energy mix. The variable and intermittent supply of energy from solar and wind points to energy systems based on hydrogen or hydrogen-based fuels as the primary energy carriers. However the safety-related properties of hydrogen imply that it is not straightforward to achieve and document the same level of safety for hydrogen systems compared to similar systems based on established fuels such as petrol diesel and natural gas. Compared to the conventional fuels hydrogen-air mixtures have lower ignition energy higher combustion reactivity and a propensity to undergo deflagration-to-detonation-transition (DDT) under certain conditions. To achieve an acceptable level of safety it is essential to develop effective measures for mitigating the consequences of hydrogen explosions in systems with certain degree of congestion and confinement. Extensive research over the last decade have demonstrated that chemical inhibition or partial suppression can be used for mitigating the consequences of vapour cloud explosions (VCEs) in congested process plants. Total and cooperation partners have demonstrated that solid flame inhibitors injected into flammable hydrocarbon-air clouds represent an effective means of mitigating the consequences of VCEs involving hydrocarbons. For hydrogen-air explosions these same chemicals inhibitors have not proved effective. It is however well-known that hydrocarbons can affect the burning velocity of hydrogen-air mixtures greatly. This paper gives an overview over previous work on chemical inhibitors. In addition experiments in a 20-litre vessel have been performed to investigate the effect of combinations of hydrocarbons and alkali salts on hydrogen/air mixtures.

In the framework of the HYTUNNEL-CS European project sponsored by FCH-JU a set of preliminary tests were conducted in a real tunnel in France. These tests are devoted to safety of hydrogen-fueled vehicles having a compressed gas storage and Temperature Pressure Release Device (TPRD). The goal of the study is to develop recommendations for Regulations Codes and Standards (RCS) for inherently safer use of hydrogen vehicles in enclosed transportation systems. In these preliminary tests the helium gas has been employed instead of hydrogen. Upward and downward gas releases following by TPRD activation has been considered. The experimental data describing local behavior (close to jet or below the chassis) as well as global behavior at the tunnel scale are obtained. These experimental data are systematically compared to existing engineering correlations. The results will be used for benchmarking studies using CFD codes. The hydrogen pressure range in these preliminary tests has been lowered down to 20MPa in order to verify the capability of various large-scale measurement techniques before scaling up to 70MPa the subject of the second campaign.

The  understanding  of  physical  phenomena  occurring  during  the  refueling  of  H2  tanks  used for hydrogen mobility applications is the key point towards the most optimal refueling protocol. A lot of experimental investigations on tank refueling were performed in the previous years for different types and sizes of tank. Several operating conditions were tested through these experiments. For instance the HyTransfer project gave one of the major outputs on the understanding of the physical phenomena occurring during a tank refueling. From a numerical perspective the availability of accurate numerical tools is another key point. Such tools could be used instead of the experimental set-ups to test various operating conditions or new designs of tanks and injectors. The use of these tools can reduce the cost of the refueling protocol development in the future. However they first need to be validated versus experimental data. This work is dedicated to CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) modeling of the hydrogen refueling of a long horizontal 530L type IV tank. As of now the number of available CFD simulations for  such  a large  tank  is  low  as  the  computational  cost  is  significant  which  is  often considered as a bottleneck for this approach. The simulated operating conditions correspond to one of the  experimental  campaigns  performed  in  the  framework  of  the  HyTransfer  project. The  3D  CFD model is presented. In a first validation step the CFD results are compared with experimental data. Then  a  deeper  insight  into  the  physics  predicted  by  the  CFD  is  provided.   Finally  two  other methodologies  with  the  aim  to  reduce  the  computational  cost  have   been  tested.

The safety factor of a composite structure in relation to its mechanical rupture is an important criterion for the safety of a 70 MPa composite pressure vessel for hydrogen storage particularly for on-board applications (car bus truck train…). After an introduction of Type IV technology the contribution of carbon fibre composite material structure manufacturing process of pressure vessels and environmental effects on the safety factor are commented. Thanks to an experimental-based evaluation on composite material and H2 composite pressure vessel the safety margins are addressed.

Two electrolysis technologies fed with renewable energy sources are promising for the production of CO₂-free hydrogen and enabling the transition to a hydrogen society: Alkaline Electrolyte (AE) and Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM). However limited information exists on the potential environmental impacts of these promising sustainable innovations when operating on a large-scale. To fill this gap the performance of AE and PEM systems is compared using ex-ante Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technology analysis and exploratory scenarios for which a refined methodology has been developed to study the effects of implementing large-scale sustainable hydrogen production systems. Ex-ante LCA allows modelling the environmental impacts of hydrogen production exploratory scenario analysis allows modelling possible upscaling effects at potential future states of hydrogen production and use in vehicles in the Netherlands in 2050. A bridging tool for mapping the technological field has been created enabling the combination of quantitative LCAs with qualitative scenarios. This tool also enables diversity for exploring multiple sets of visions. The main results from the paper show with an exception for the “ozone depletion” impact category (1) that large-scale AE and PEM systems have similar environmental impacts with variations lower than 7% in all impact categories (2) that the contribution of the electrolyser is limited to 10% of all impact categories results and (3) that the origin of the electricity is the largest contributor to the environmental impact contributing to more than 90% in all impact categories even when renewable energy sources are used. It is concluded that the methodology was applied successfully and provides a solid basis for an ex-ante assessment framework that can be applied to emerging technological systems.

Hydrogen transport and trapping equations are implemented in a FE software using User Subroutines and the obtained tool is applied to get the diffusion fields in a metallic sheet submitted to a U-Bend test. Based on a submodelling process mechanical and diffusion fields have been computed at the polycrystal scale from which statistical evaluation of the risk of failure of the sample has been estimated.

With the growing success of green hydrogen the general trend is for increased hydrogen production and large quantities of storage. Engie’s projects have grown from a few kilos of hydrogen to the quest for large scale production and associated storage – e.g. several tons or tens of tons. Although a positive sign for Engie’s projects it does inevitably result in challenges in new storage methods and in risks management related to such facilities; particularly with hydrogen facilities being increasingly placed in the vicinity of general public sites. For example a leak on hydrogen storage can generate significant thermal and overpressure effects on surrounding people/facilities in the event of ignition. Firewalls can be installed to protect individuals / infrastructure from thermal effects but the adverse result is that this solution can increase the violence of an explosion in case of delayed ignition or confinement. The manner of emergency intervention on a pool fire of hydrogen is also totally different from intervention on compressed gaseous hydrogen. The first part of this presentation will explain different means to store hydrogen in large quantities. The second part will present for each storage the specific risks generated. The third and final part will explain how these risks can be addressed on a technical point of view by safety devices or by other solutions (separation distance passive/active means …).

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is an important mediator of inflammatory processes. However controversial findings also exist and its underlying molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Recently the byproducts of H₂S per-/polysulfides emerged as biological mediators themselves highlighting the complex chemistry of H₂S. In this study we characterized the biological effects of P* a slow-releasing H₂S and persulfide donor. To differentiate between H₂S and polysulfide-derived effects we decomposed P* into polysulfides. P* was further compared to the commonly used fast-releasing H₂S donor sodium hydrogen sulfide (NaHS). The effects on oxidative stress and interleukin-6 (IL-6) expression were assessed in ATDC5 cells using superoxide measurement qPCR ELISA and Western blotting. The findings on IL-6 expression were corroborated in primary chondrocytes from osteoarthritis patients. In ATDC5 cells P* not only induced the expression of the antioxidant enzyme heme oxygenase-1 via per-/polysulfides but also induced activation of Akt and p38 MAPK. NaHS and P* significantly impaired menadione-induced superoxide production. P* reduced IL-6 levels in both ATDC5 cells and primary chondrocytes dependent on H₂Srelease. Taken together P* provides a valuable research tool for the investigation of H₂S and per-/polysulfide signalling. These data demonstrate the importance of not only H₂S but also per-/polysulfides as bioactive signaling molecules with potent anti-inflammatory and in particular antioxidant properties.

A better understanding of chemical kinetics under volumetric expansion is important for a number of situations relevant to industrial safety including detonation diffraction and direct initiation reflected shock-ignition at obstacles ignition behind a decaying shock among others. The ignition of stoichiometric hydrogen-air mixtures was studied using 0D numerical simulations with time-dependent specific volume variations. The competition between chemical energy release and expansion-induced cooling was characterized for different cooling rates and mathematical forms describing the shock decay rate. The critical conditions for reaction quenching were systematically determined and the thermo-chemistry dynamics were analyzed near the critical conditions.

Hydrogen delivered at hydrogen refuelling station must be compliant with requirements stated in different standards which require specialized sampling device and personnel to operate it. Currently different strategies are implemented in different parts of the world and these strategies have already been used to perform 100s of hydrogen fuel sampling in USA EU and Japan. However these strategies have never been compared on a large systematic study. The purpose of this paper is to describe and compare the different strategies for sampling hydrogen at the nozzle and summarize the key aspects of all the existing hydrogen fuel sampling including discussion on material compatibility with the impurities that must be assessed. This review highlights the fact it is currently difficult to evaluate the impact or the difference these strategies would have on the hydrogen fuel quality assessment. Therefore comparative sampling studies are required to evaluate the equivalence between the different sampling strategies. This is the first step to support the standardization of hydrogen fuel sampling and to identify future research and development area for hydrogen fuel sampling.

With the clear adverse impacts of fossil fuel-based energy systems on the climate and environment ever-growing interest and rapid developments are taking place toward full or nearly full dependence on renewable energies in the next few decades. Estonia is a European country with large demands for electricity and thermal energy for district heating. Considering it as the case study this work explores the feasibility and full potential of optimally sized photovoltaic (PV) wind and PV/wind systems equipped with electric and thermal storage to fulfill those demands. Given the large excess energy from 100% renewable energy systems for an entire country this excess is utilized to first meet the district heating demand and then to produce hydrogen fuel. Using simplified models for PV and wind systems and considering polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis a genetic optimizer is employed for scanning Estonia for optimal installation sites of the three systems that maximize the fulfillment of the demand and the supply–demand matching while minimizing the cost of energy. The results demonstrate the feasibility of all systems fully covering the two demands while making a profit compared to selling the excess produced electricity directly. However the PV-driven system showed enormous required system capacity and amounts of excess energy with the limited solar resources in Estonia. The wind system showed relatively closer characteristics to the hybrid system but required a higher storage capacity by 75.77%. The hybrid PV/wind-driven system required a total capacity of 194 GW most of which belong to the wind system. It was also superior concerning the amount (15.05 × 109 tons) and cost (1.42 USD/kg) of the produced green hydrogen. With such full mapping of the installation capacities and techno-economic parameters of the three systems across the country this study can assist policymakers when planning different country-scale cogeneration systems.

Hydrogen (H2) is an essential vector for freeing our societies from fossil fuels and effectively initiating the energy transition. Offering high energy density hydrogen can be used for mobile stationary or industrial applications of all sizes. This perspective on the crucial role of hydrogen is shared by a growing number of countries worldwide (e.g. China Germany Japan Republic of Korea Australia and United States) which are publishing ambitious roadmaps for the development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies supported by substantial financial efforts.

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is one of the low temperature processes for producing green hydrogen when coupled with renewable energy sources. Although this technology has already reached a certain level of maturity and is being implemented at industrial scale its high capital expenditures deriving from the utilization of expensive corrosion-resistant materials limit its economic competitiveness compared to the widespread fossil fuel-based hydrogen production such as steam reforming. In particular the structural elements like bipolar plates (BPP) and porous transports layers (PTL) are essentially made of titanium protected by precious metal layers in order to withstand the harsh oxidizing conditions in the anode compartment. This review provides an analysis of literature on structural element degradation on the oxygen side of PEM water electrolyzers from the early investigations to the recent developments involving novel anti-corrosion coatings that protect more cost-effective BPP and PTL materials like stainless steels.

Gaseous hydrogen for fuel cell electric vehicles must meet quality standards such as ISO 14687:2019 which contains maximal control thresholds for several impurities which could damage the fuel cells or the infrastructure. A review of analytical techniques for impurities analysis has already been carried out by Murugan et al. in 2014. Similarly this document intends to review the sampling of hydrogen and the available analytical methods together with a survey of laboratories performing the analysis of hydrogen about the techniques being used. Most impurities are addressed however some of them are challenging especially the halogenated compounds since only some halogenated compounds are covered not all of them. The analysis of impurities following ISO 14687:2019 remains expensive and complex enhancing the need for further research in this area. Novel and promising analyzers have been developed which need to be validated according to ISO 21087:2019 requirements.

This paper reviews the relationship between the production of steel and the environment as it stands today. It deals with raw material issues (availability scarcity) energy resources and generation of by-products i.e. the circular economy the anthropogenic iron mine and the energy transition. The paper also deals with emissions to air (dust Particulate Matter heavy metals Persistant Organics Pollutants) water and soil i.e. with toxicity ecotoxicity epidemiology and health issues but also greenhouse gas emissions i.e. climate change. The loss of biodiversity is also mentioned. All these topics are analyzed with historical hindsight and the present understanding of their physics and chemistry is discussed stressing areas where knowledge is still lacking. In the face of all these issues technological solutions were sought to alleviate their effects: many areas are presently satisfactorily handled (the circular economy—a historical’ practice in the case of steel energy conservation air/water/soil emissions) and in line with present environmental regulations; on the other hand there are important hanging issues such as the generation of mine tailings (and tailings dam failures) the emissions of greenhouse gases (the steel industry plans to become carbon-neutral by 2050 at least in the EU) and the emission of fine PM which WHO correlates with premature deaths. Moreover present regulatory levels of emissions will necessarily become much stricter.

Flame propagation and acceleration in unobstructed channels/tubes is usually assumed as symmetric. A fully optically accessible narrow channel that allows to perform simultaneous high-speed schlieren visualization from two mutually perpendicular directions was built to asses the validity of the aforementioned assumption. Here we provide experimental evidence of the interesting three-dimensional structures and asymmetries that develop during the acceleration phase and show how these may control detonation onset in N2-diluted stoichiometric H2-O2 mixtures.

This article provides a techno-economic study on coupled offshore wind farm and green hydrogen production via sea water electrolysis (OWF-H2). Offshore wind energy wind farms (OWF) and water electrolysis (WE) technologies are described. MHyWind (the tool used to perform simulations and optimisations of such plants) is presented as well as the models of the main components in the study. Three case studies focus on offshore wind farms either stand-alone or connected to the grid via export cables coupled with a battery and electrolysis systems either offshore or onshore. Exhaustive searches and optimisations performed allowed for rules of thumb to be derived on the sizing of coupled OWF-H2 plants that minimize costs of hydrogen production (LCoH2 in €/kgH2): Non-connected OWF-H2 coupled to a battery offers the lowest LCoH2 without the costs of H2 transportation when compared to cases where the WE is installed onshore and connected to the OWF. Using a simple power distribution heuristic increasing the number of installed WE allows the system to take advantage of more OWF energy but doesn’t improve plant efficiency whereas a battery always does. Finally within the scope of this study it is observed that power ratios of optimized plant architectures (leading to the lowest LCoH2) are between 0.8-0.9 for PWE/POWF and 0.3-0.35 for PBattery/POWF.

Despite being the lightest element in the periodic table hydrogen poses many risks regarding its production storage and transport but it is also the one element promising pollutionfree energy for the planet energy reliability and sustainability. Development of such novel materials conveying a hydrogen source face stringent scrutiny from both a scientific and a safety point of view: they are required to have a high hydrogen wt.% storage capacity must store hydrogen in a safe manner (i.e. by chemically binding it) and should exhibit controlled and preferably rapid absorption–desorption kinetics. Even the most advanced composites today face the difficult task of overcoming the harsh re-hydrogenation conditions (elevated temperature high hydrogen pressure). Traditionally the most utilized materials have been RMH (reactive metal hydrides) and complex metal borohydrides M(BH4 )x (M: main group or transition metal; x: valence of M) often along with metal amides or various additives serving as catalysts (Pd2+ Ti4+ etc.). Through destabilization (kinetic or thermodynamic) M(BH4 )x can effectively lower their dehydrogenation enthalpy providing for a faster reaction occurring at a lower temperature onset. The present review summarizes the recent scientific results on various metal borohydrides aiming to present the current state-of-the-art on such hydrogen storage materials while trying to analyze the pros and cons of each material regarding its thermodynamic and kinetic behavior in hydrogenation studies.

Globally the accelerating use of renewable energy sources enabled by increased efficiencies and reduced costs and driven by the need to mitigate the effects of climate change has significantly increased research in the areas of renewable energy production storage distribution and end-use. Central to this discussion is the use of hydrogen as a clean efficient energy vector for energy storage. This review by experts of Task 32 “Hydrogen-based Energy Storage” of the International Energy Agency Hydrogen TCP reports on the development over the last 6 years of hydrogen storage materials methods and techniques including electrochemical and thermal storage systems. An overview is given on the background to the various methods the current state of development and the future prospects. The following areas are covered; porous materials liquid hydrogen carriers complex hydrides intermetallic hydrides electro-chemical storage of energy thermal energy storage hydrogen energy systems and an outlook is presented for future prospects and research on hydrogen-based energy storage

Fossil fuels are being progressively substituted by a cleaner and more environmentally friendly form of energy where hydrogen fuel cells stand out. However the implementation of a competitive hydrogen economy still presents several challenges related to economic costs required infrastructures and environmental performance. In this context the objective of this work is to determine the environmental performance of the recovery of hydrogen from industrial waste gas streams to feed high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cells for stationary applications. The life-cycle assessment (LCA) analyzed alternative scenarios with different process configurations considering as functional unit 1 kg of hydrogen produced 1 kWh of energy obtained and 1 kg of inlet flow. The results make the recovery of hydrogen from waste streams environmentally preferable over alternative processes like methane reforming or coal gasification. The production of the fuel cell device resulted in high contributions in the abiotic depletion potential and acidification potential mainly due to the presence of platinum metal in the anode and cathode. The design and operation conditions that defined a more favorable scenario are the availability of a pressurized waste gas stream the use of photovoltaic electricity and the implementation of an energy recovery system for the residual methane stream.

To achieve a more ecologically friendly energy transition by the year 2050 under the European “green” accord hydrogen has recently gained significant scientific interest due to its efficiency as an energy carrier. This paper focuses on large-scale hydrogen production systems based on marine renewable-energy-based wind turbines and tidal turbines. The paper reviews the different technologies of hydrogen production using water electrolyzers energy storage unit base hydrogen vectors and fuel cells (FC). The focus is on large-scale hydrogen production systems using marine renewable energies. This study compares electrolyzers energy storage units and FC technologies with the main factors considered being cost sustainability and efficiency. Furthermore a review of aging models of electrolyzers and FCs based on electrical circuit models is drawn from the literature and presented including characterization methods of the model components and the parameters extraction methods using a dynamic current profile. In addition industrial projects for producing hydrogen from renewable energies that have already been completed or are now in progress are examined. The paper is concluded through a summary of recent hydrogen production and energy storage advances as well as some applications. Perspectives on enhancing the sustainability and efficiency of hydrogen production systems are also proposed and discussed. This paper provides a review of behavioral aging models of electrolyzers and FCs when integrated into hydrogen production systems as this is crucial for their successful deployment in an ever-changing energy context. We also review the EU’s potential for renewable energy analysis. In summary this study provides valuable information for research and industry stakeholders aiming to promote a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy transition.

In the current context of the ban on fossil fuel vehicles (diesel and petrol) adopted by several European cities the question arises of the development of the infrastructure for the distribution of alternative energies namely hydrogen (for fuel cell electric vehicles) and electricity (for battery electric vehicles). First we compare the main advantages/constraints of the two alternative propulsion modes for the user. The main advantages of hydrogen vehicles are autonomy and fast recharging. The main advantages of battery-powered vehicles are the lower price and the wide availability of the electricity grid. We then review the existing studies on the deployment of new hydrogen distribution networks and compare the deployment costs of hydrogen and electricity distribution networks. Finally we conclude with some personal conclusions on the benefits of developing both modes and ideas for future studies on the subject.

Investing in green hydrogen systems has become a global objective to achieve the net-zero emission goal. Therefore it is seen as the primary force behind efforts to restructure the world’s energy lessen our reliance on gas attain carbon neutrality and combat climate change. This paper proposes a power management for a net zero emission PV microgrid-based decentralized green hydrogen system. The hybrid microgrid combines a fuel cell battery PV electrolyzer and compressed hydrogen storage (CHSU) unit aimed at power sharing between the total components of the islanded DC microgrid and minimizing the equivalent hydrogen consumption (EHC) by the fuel cell and the battery. In order to minimize the EHC and maintain the battery SOC an optimization-based approach known as the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is used. A rulebased management is used to manage the power consumed by the electrolyzer and the CHSU by the PV system in case of excess power. The battery is controlled by an inverse droop control to regulate the dc bus voltage and the output power of the PV system is maximized by the fuzzy logic controller-based MPPT. As the hybrid microgrid works in the islanded mode a two-level hierarchical control is applied in order to generate the voltage and the frequency references. The suggested energy management approach establishes the operating point for each system component in order to enhance the system’s efficiency. It allows the hybrid system to use less hydrogen while managing energy more efficiently.

This paper addresses the topic of the conceptual design of a regional aircraft with hybrid electric propulsion based on hydrogen fuel cells. It aims at providing an optimization-based method to design a hybrid propulsive system comprising two power sources (jet fuel and hydrogen) for the generation of the required propulsive power and at studying the impact of fuel cell technologies on the aircraft performances. Indeed by performing optimizations for two hybrid propulsive systems using either low temperature or high temperature Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells this study provides a preliminary assessment of the impact of the fuel cell operating temperature on the system design and the overall aircraft performance. First this paper gives a description of the baseline turboprop regional aircraft with a focus on its high speed and low speed flight performances which will serve as requirements for the design of the hybrid aircraft. Then the hybrid electric architecture and the sizing models of the propulsion system are presented. Finally optimizations are performed to design two parallel hybrid propulsive systems based on different fuel cells technologies and aimed at minimizing the block fuel per passenger over a mission of 200 nm. Results show how the proposed methodology and models lead to design two propulsive systems capable of reducing the fuel consumption per passenger by more than 30% compared to the baseline aircraft. The study also shows that the choice of fuel cell operating temperature has a first-order impact on the total mass of the propulsive system due to the higher cooling requirement of the low temperature fuel cells.

The main purpose of this article is to provide a short review of proton exchange membrane electrolyzer (PEMEL) modeling used for power electronics control. So far three types of PEMEL modeling have been adopted in the literature: resistive load static load (including an equivalent resistance series-connected with a DC voltage generator representing the reversible voltage) and dynamic load (taking into consideration the dynamics both at the anode and the cathode). The modeling of the load is crucial for control purposes since it may have an impact on the performance of the system. This article aims at providing essential information and comparing the different load modeling.

Severe accidents in nuclear power plants are potentially dangerous to both humans and the environment. To prevent and/or mitigate the consequences of these accidents it is paramount to have adequate accident management measures in place. During a severe accident combustible gases — especially hydrogen and carbon monoxide — can be released in significant amounts leading to a potential explosion risk in the nuclear containment building. These gases need to be managed to avoid threatening the containment integrity which can result in the releases of radioactive material into the environment. The main objective of the AMHYCO project is to propose innovative enhancements in the way combustible gases are managed in case of a severe accident in currently operating reactors. For this purpose the AMHYCO project pursues three specific activities including experimental investigations of relevant phenomena related to hydrogen / carbon monoxide combustion and mitigation with PARs (Passive Autocatalytic Recombiners) improvement of the predictive capabilities of analysis tools used for explosion hazard evaluation inside the reactor containment as well as enhancement of the Severe Accident Management Guidelines (SAMGs) with respect to combustible gases risk management based on theoretical and experimental results. Officially launched on 1 October 2020 AMHYCO is an EU-funded Horizon 2020 project that will last 4 years from 2020 to 2024. This international project consists of 12 organizations (six from European countries and one from Canada) and is led by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM). AMHYCO will benefit from the worldwide experts in combustion science accident management and nuclear safety in its Advisory Board. The paper will give an overview of the work program and planned outcome of the project.

Hydrogen as an energy carrier is very versatile in energy storage applications. Developments in novel sustainable technologies towards a CO2-free society are needed and the exploration of all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) as well as solid-state hydrogen storage applications based on metal hydrides can provide solutions for such technologies. However there are still many technical challenges for both hydrogen storage material and ASSBs related to designing low-cost materials with low-environmental impact. The current materials considered for all-solid-state batteries should have high conductivities for Na+ Mg2+ and Ca2+ while Al3+-based compounds are often marginalised due to the lack of suitable electrode and electrolyte materials. In hydrogen storage materials the sluggish kinetic behaviour of solid-state hydride materials is one of the key constraints that limit their practical uses. Therefore it is necessary to overcome the kinetic issues of hydride materials before discussing and considering them on the system level. This review summarizes the achievements of the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) innovative training network (ITN) ECOSTORE the aim of which was the investigation of different aspects of (complex) metal hydride materials. Advances in battery and hydrogen storage materials for the efficient and compact storage of renewable energy production are discussed.

Energy production by methanization or gasification of biomass is dependant on the chemical composition of the gas generated. The resistive sensors based on semiconductor metal oxides like the MQ series sensors are inexpensive and frequently used in gas detection. These sensors initially dedicated to detecting gas leaks in safety systems have relatively small measurement ranges (i.e. limited to concentrations below 10000 ppm). It is therefore necessary to find solutions to adapt these categories of sensors for gas measurements in the energy sector where the gas concentration is much more significant. In this article we propose a protocol using an adaptable capsule for MQ-4 and MQ-8 sensors to measure high concentrations of CH4 and H2 respectively. The technique consists of diluting the gas to be studied in a known volume of air. Three methods are proposed and compared regarding the linearity and the repeatability of the measurements. The first method was done in an airtight enclosed chamber the second method consists of directly injecting the gas on the sensor placed in an open environment and the final method was accomplished by direct injection of the gas on the sensor placed in a partially closed capsule. Comparisons show that the first technique provides the best repeatability with a maximum standard deviation of 13.88% for CH4 measurement and 5.1% for H2. However its linearity is weak (i.e. R2 ¼ 0.8637 for CH4 and R2 ¼ 0.5756 for H2). The second technique has better linearity but bad repeatability. The third technique presents the best results with R2 values of 0.9973 for the CH4 measurement and 0.9472 for H2. The use of the partially closed capsule resulted in an acceptable linear response of the sensors by up to 20% concentration of CH4 and until 13.33% concentration of H2 in the studied gas. The use of this simple and low-cost technique facilitates the characterization of combustible gases in isolated areas. It allows local operators of biomass valorization systems to control and improve their installations while avoiding the high costs of conventional measurement devices. This study hence contributes to the development of rural electrification projects in remote areas.

Decarbonisation of the energy sector is becoming increasingly more important to the reduction in climate change. Renewable energy is an effective means of reducing CO2 emissions but the fluctuation in demand and production of energy is a limiting factor. Liquid hydrogen allows for long-term storage of energy. Hydrogen quality is important for the safety and efficiency of the end user. Furthermore the quality of the hydrogen gas after liquefaction has not yet been reported. The purity of hydrogen after liquefaction was assessed against the specification of Hydrogen grade D in the ISO-14687:2019 by analysing samples taken at different locations throughout production. Sampling was carried out directly in gas cylinders and purity was assessed using multiple analytical methods. The results indicate that the hydrogen gas produced from liquefaction is of a higher purity than the starting gas with all impurities below the threshold values set in ISO-14687:2019. The amount fraction of water measured in the hydrogen sample increased with repeated sampling from the liquid hydrogen tank suggesting that the sampling system used was affected by low temperatures (−253 ◦C). These data demonstrate for the first time the impact of liquefaction on hydrogen purity assessed against ISO-14687:2019 showing that liquified hydrogen is a viable option for long-term energy storage whilst also improving quality.

Hydrogen is a bright energy vector that could be crucial to decarbonise and combat climate change. This energy evolution involves several sectors including power backup systems to supply priority facility loads during power outages. As buildings now integrate complex automation domotics and security systems energy backup systems cause interest. A hydrogen-based backup system could supply loads in a multi-day blackout; however the backup system should be sized appropriately to ensure the survival of essential loads and low cost. In this sense this work proposes a sizing of fuel cell (FC) backup systems for low voltage (LV) buildings using the history of power outages. Historical data allows fitting a probability function to determine the appropriate survival of loads. The proposed sizing is applied to a university building with a photovoltaic generation system as a case study. Results show that the sizing of an FC–battery backup system for the installation is 7.6% cheaper than a battery-only system under a usual 330-minutes outage scenario. And 59.3% cheaper in the case of an unusual 48-hours outage scenario. It ensures a 99% probability of supplying essential load during power outages. It evidences the pertinence of an FC backup system to attend to outages of long-duration and the integration of batteries to support the abrupt load variations. This research is highlighted by using historical data from actual outages to define the survival of essential loads with total service probability. It also makes it possible to determine adequate survival for non-priority loads. The proposed sizing is generalisable and scalable for other buildings and allows quantifying the reliability of the backup system tending to the resilience of electrical systems.

Driven by a small number of niche markets and several decades of application research fuel cell systems (FCS) are gradually reaching maturity to the point where many players are questioning the interest and intensity of its deployment in the transport sector in general. This article aims to shed light on this debate from the road transport perspective. It focuses on the description of the fuel cell vehicle (FCV) in order to understand its assets limitations and current paths of progress. These vehicles are basically hybrid systems combining a fuel cell and a lithium-ion battery and different architectures are emerging among manufacturers who adopt very different levels of hybridization. The main opportunity of Fuel Cell Vehicles is clearly their design versatility based on the decoupling of the choice of the number of Fuel Cell modules and hydrogen tanks. This enables manufacturers to meet various specifications using standard products. Upcoming developments will be in line with the crucial advantage of Fuel Cell Vehicles: intensive use in terms of driving range and load capacity. Over the next few decades long-distance heavy-duty vehicles and fleets of taxis or delivery vehicles will develop based on range extender or mild hybrid architectures and enable the hydrogen sector to mature the technology from niche markets to a large-scale market.

Europe’s low-carbon energy policy favors a greater use of fuel cells and technologies based on hydrogen used as a fuel. Hydrogen delivered at the hydrogen refueling station must be compliant with requirements stated in different standards. Currently the quality control process is performed by offline analysis of the hydrogen fuel. It is however beneficial to continuously monitor at least some of the contaminants onsite using chemical sensors. For hydrogen quality control with regard to contaminants high sensitivity integration parameters and low cost are the most important requirements. In this study we have reviewed the existing sensor technologies to detect contaminants in hydrogen then discussed the implementation of sensors at a hydrogen refueling stations described the state-of-art in protocols to perform assessment of these sensor technologies and finally identified the gaps and needs in these areas. It was clear that sensors are not yet commercially available for all gaseous contaminants mentioned in ISO14687:2019. The development of standardized testing protocols is required to go hand in hand with the development of chemical sensors for this application following a similar approach to the one undertaken for air sensors.

The need to reduce CO2 emissions to zero by 2050 has meant an increasing focus on high emitting industrial sectors such as steel. However significant uncertainties remain as to the rate of technology diffusion across steel production pathways in different regions and how this might impact on climate ambition. Informed by empirical analysis of historical transitions this paper presents modelling on the regional deployment of Direction Reduction Iron using hydrogen (DRI-H2). We find that DRI-H2 can play a leading role in the decarbonisation of the sector leading to near-zero emissions by 2070. Regional spillovers from early to late adopting regions can speed up the rate of deployment of DRI-H2 leading to lower cumulative emissions and system costs. Without such effects cumulative emissions are 13% higher than if spillovers are assumed and approximately 15% and 20% higher in China and India respectively. Given the estimates of DRI-H2 cost-effectiveness relative to other primary production technologies we also find that costs increase in the absence of regional spillovers. However other factors can also have impacts on deployment emission reductions and costs including the composition of the early adopter group material efficiency improvements and scrap recycling rates. For the sector to achieve decarbonisation key regions will need to continue to invest in low carbon steel projects recognising their broader global benefit and look to develop and strengthen policy coordination on technologies such as DRI-H2.

Current technological improvements are yet to put the world on track to net-zero which will require the uptake of transformative low-carbon innovations to supplement mitigation efforts. However the role of such innovations is not yet fully understood; some of these ‘miracles’ are considered indispensable to Paris Agreement-compliant mitigation but their limitations availability and potential remain a source of debate. We evaluate such potentially game-changing innovations from the experts’ perspective aiming to support the design of realistic decarbonisation scenarios and better-informed net-zero policy strategies. In a worldwide survey 260 climate and energy experts assessed transformative innovations against their mitigation potential at-scale availability and/or widescale adoption and risk of delayed diffusion. Hierarchical clustering and multi-criteria decision-making revealed differences in perceptions of core technological innovations with next generation energy storage alternative building materials iron-ore electrolysis and hydrogen in steelmaking emerging as top priorities. Instead technologies highly represented in well-below-2◦C scenarios seemingly feature considerable and impactful delays hinting at the need to re-evaluate their role in future pathways. Experts’ assessments appear to converge more on the potential role of other disruptive innovations including lifestyle shifts and alternative economic models indicating the importance of scenarios including non-technological and demand-side innovations. To provide insights for expert elicitation processes we finally note caveats related to the level of representativeness among the 260 engaged experts the level of their expertise that may have varied across the examined innovations and the potential for subjective interpretation to which the employed linguistic scales may be prone to.

Hydrogen as energy carrier is referenced in French and European political strategies to realize the transition to low-carbon energy. In 2020 in France the government was launching a major investment plan amounting to 7.2 billion euros until 2030 to support the deployment of large-scale hydrogen technologies [1]. The implementation of this strategy should lead to the arrival of several new hydrogen systems that will need to be evaluated and certified regarding their compliance with safety requirements before being commercialized. Conformity assessment and certification play an important role to achieve a good safety level on the EU market for the protection of workers and consumers. It is a way for the manufacturer to prove that hazards have been identified and risks are managed and to demonstrate his commitment to safety that are key to access to the EU market. To assist manufacturers in identifying the applicable regulations standards and procedures for putting their product on the market Ineris elaborated a guidebook [2] with financial and technical support by ADEME the French Agency for Ecological Transition and France Hydrogen the French Association for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells. The preparation of this document also led to identifying gaps in the Regulations Codes and Standards (RCS) framework and necessary resources for the implementation of the conformity assessment procedures. This paper first describes the main regulatory procedures applicable for various types of hydrogen systems. Then describes the role of the actors involved in this process with a special focus on the French context. And finally focuses on some of the gaps that were identified and formulates suggestions to address them.

Replacing fossil fuels with energy sources and carriers that are sustainable environmentally benign and affordable is amongst the most pressing challenges for future socio-economic development. To that goal hydrogen is presumed to be the most promising energy carrier. Electrocatalytic water splitting if driven by green electricity would provide hydrogen with minimal CO2 footprint. The viability of water electrolysis still hinges on the availability of durable earth-abundant electrocatalyst materials and the overall process efficiency. This review spans from the fundamentals of electrocatalytically initiated water splitting to the very latest scientific findings from university and institutional research also covering specifications and special features of the current industrial processes and those processes currently being tested in large-scale applications. Recently developed strategies are described for the optimisation and discovery of active and durable materials for electrodes that ever-increasingly harness first principles calculations and machine learning. In addition a technoeconomic analysis of water electrolysis is included that allows an assessment of the extent to which a large-scale implementation of water splitting can help to combat climate change. This review article is intended to cross-pollinate and strengthen efforts from fundamental understanding to technical implementation and to improve the ‘junctions’ between the field’s physical chemists materials scientists and engineers as well as stimulate much-needed exchange among these groups on challenges encountered in the different domains.

Within the framework of energy transition hydrogen has a great potential as a clean energy carrier. The conversion of electricity into hydrogen for storage and transport is an efficient technological solution capable of significantly reducing the problem of energy shortage. Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is the best solution to store the large amount of excess electrical energy arising from the excessive over-production of electricity with the objective of balancing the irregular and intermittent energy production typical of renewable sources such as windmills or solar. Earlier studies have demonstrated that UHS should be qualitatively identical to the underground storage of natural gas. Much later however it was revealed that UHS is bound to incur peculiar difficulties as the stored hydrogen is likely to be used by the microorganisms present in the rocks for their metabolism which may cause significant losses of hydrogen. This paper demonstrates that besides microbial activities the hydrodynamic behavior of UHS is very unique and different from that of a natural gas storage.

This paper evaluates the potential of grid services in France Italy Norway and Spain to provide an alternative income for electrolysers producing hydrogen from wind power. Grid services are simulated with each country's data for 2017 for energy prices grid services and wind power profiles from relevant wind parks. A novel metric is presented the value of curtailed hydrogen which is independent from several highly uncertain parameters such as electrolyser cost or hydrogen market price. Results indicate that grid services can monetise the unused spare capacity of electrolyser plants improving their economy in the critical deployment phase. For most countries up-regulation yields a value of curtailed hydrogen above 6 V/kg over 3 times higher than the EU's 2030 price target (without incentives). However countries with large hydro power resources such as Norway yield far lower results below 2 V/kg. The value of curtailed hydrogen also decreases with hydrogen production corresponding to the cases of symmetric and down-regulation.

Much has been learned about natural hydrogen (H2) seepages and accumulation but present knowledge of hydrogen behavior in the crust is so limited that it is not yet possible to consider exploitation of this resources. Hydrogen targeting requires a shift in the long-standing paradigms that drive oil and gas exploration. This paper describes the foundation of an integrated source-to-sink view of the hydrogen cycle and propose preliminary practical guidelines for hydrogen exploration.

Hydrogen is a key energy carrier that could play a crucial role in the transition to a low-carbon economy. Hydrogen-related technologies are considered flexible solutions to support the large-scale implementation of intermittent energy supply from renewable sources by using renewable energy to generate green hydrogen during periods of low demand. Therefore a short-term increase in demand for hydrogen as an energy carrier and an increase in hydrogen production are expected to drive demand for large-scale storage facilities to ensure continuous availability. Owing to the large potential available storage space underground hydrogen storage offers a viable solution for the long-term storage of large amounts of energy. This study presents the results of a survey of potential underground hydrogen storage sites in Italy carried out within the H2020 EU Hystories “Hydrogen Storage In European Subsurface” project. The objective of this work was to clarify the feasibility of the implementation of large-scale storage of green hydrogen in depleted hydrocarbon fields and saline aquifers. By analysing publicly available data mainly well stratigraphy and logs we were able to identify onshore and offshore storage sites in Italy. The hydrogen storage capacity in depleted gas fields currently used for natural gas storage was estimated to be around 69.2 TWh.

To cope with climate change emerging fuels- hydrogen ammonia and methanol- have been proposed as promising energy carriers that will replace part of the liquefied natural gas (LNG) in future maritime scenarios. Energy efficiency is an important indicator for evaluating the system but the maritime supply system for emerging fuels has yet to be revealed. In this study the energy efficiency of the maritime supply chain of hydrogen ammonia methanol and natural gas is investigated considering processes including production storage loading transport and unloading. A sensitivity analysis of parameters such as ambient temperature storage time pipeline length and sailing time is also carried out. The results show that hydrogen (2.366%) has the highest daily boil-off gas (BOG) rate and wastes more energy than LNG (0.413%) with ammonia and methanol both being lower than LNG. The recycling of BOG is of great importance to the hydrogen supply chain. When produced from renewable energy sources methanol (98.02%) is the most energy efficient followed by ammonia with hydrogen being the least (89.10%). This assessment shows from an energy efficiency perspective that ammonia and methanol have the potential to replace LNG as the energy carrier of the future and that hydrogen requires efficient BOG handling systems to increase competitiveness. This study provides some inspirations for the design of global maritime supply systems for emerging fuels.

In the framework of the ongoing EMPIR JRP 16ENG01 ‘‘Metrology for Hydrogen Vehicles’’ a main task is to investigate the influence of pressure on the measurement accuracy of Coriolis Mass Flow Meters (CFM) used at Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS). At a HRS hydrogen is transferred at very high and changing pressures with simultaneously varying flow rates and temperatures. It is clearly very difficult for CFMs to achieve the current legal requirements with respect to mass flow measurement accuracy at these measurement conditions. As a result of the very dynamic filling process it was observed that the accuracy of mass flow measurement at different pressure ranges is not sufficient. At higher pressures it was found that particularly short refueling times cause significant measurement deviations. On this background it may be concluded that pressure has a great impact on the accuracy of mass flow measurement. To gain a deeper understanding of this matter RISE has built a unique high-pressure test facility. With the aid of this newly developed test rig it is possible to calibrate CFMs over a wide pressure and flow range with water or base oils as test medium. The test rig allows calibration measurements under the conditions prevailing at a 70 MPa HRS regarding mass flows (up to 3.6 kg min−1) and pressures (up to 87.5 MPa).

Ammonia a molecule that is gaining more interest as a fueling vector has been considered as a candidate to power transport produce energy and support heating applications for decades. However the particular characteristics of the molecule always made it a chemical with low if any benefit once compared to conventional fossil fuels. Still the current need to decarbonize our economy makes the search of new methods crucial to use chemicals such as ammonia that can be produced and employed without incurring in the emission of carbon oxides. Therefore current efforts in this field are leading scientists industries and governments to seriously invest efforts in the development of holistic solutions capable of making ammonia a viable fuel for the transition toward a clean future. On that basis this review has approached the subject gathering inputs from scientists actively working on the topic. The review starts from the importance of ammonia as an energy vector moving through all of the steps in the production distribution utilization safety legal considerations and economic aspects of the use of such a molecule to support the future energy mix. Fundamentals of combustion and practical cases for the recovery of energy of ammonia are also addressed thus providing a complete view of what potentially could become a vector of crucial importance to the mitigation of carbon emissions. Different from other works this review seeks to provide a holistic perspective of ammonia as a chemical that presents benefits and constraints for storing energy from sustainable sources. State-of-the-art knowledge provided by academics actively engaged with the topic at various fronts also enables a clear vision of the progress in each of the branches of ammonia as an energy carrier. Further the fundamental boundaries of the use of the molecule are expanded to real technical issues for all potential technologies capable of using it for energy purposes legal barriers that will be faced to achieve its deployment safety and environmental considerations that impose a critical aspect for acceptance and wellbeing and economic implications for the use of ammonia across all aspects approached for the production and implementation of this chemical as a fueling source. Herein this work sets the principles research practicalities and future views of a transition toward a future where ammonia will be a major energy player.

Fuel cells and electric batteries are competing technologies for the energy transition in heavy transportation. We explore the conditions for the survival of a unique technology in the long term. Learning by doing suggests focusing on a single technology while differentiation and decreasing return to scale (cost convexity) favor diversification. Exogenous technical change also plays a role. The interaction between these factors is analyzed in a general model. It is proved that in absence of convexity and exogenous technical change only one technology is used for the whole transition. We then apply this framework to analyze the competition between fuel-cell electric buses (FCEBs) and battery electric buses (BEB) in the European bus sector. There are both learning by doing and exogenous technical change. The model is calibrated and solved. It is shown that the existence of a niche for FCEBs critically depends on the speed at which cost reductions are achieved. The speed depends both on the size of the niche and the rate of learning by doing for FCEBs. Public policies to decentralize the socially optimal trajectory in terms of taxes (carbon) and subsidies (learning by doing) are derived.

The Federal Institute of Metrology METAS developed a Hydrogen Field Test Standard (HFTS) that can be used for field verification and calibration of hydrogen refuelling stations. The testing method is based on the gravimetric principle. The experimental design of the HFTS as well as the description of the method are presented here.

The MultHyFuel project notably aims to produce the data missing for usable risk analysis and mitigation activity for Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRS) in a multi-fuel context. In this framework realistic releases of hydrogen that could occur in representative multi-fuel forecourts were studied. These releases can occur inside or outside fuel dispensers and they can interact with a complex environment notably made of parked cars and trucks. This paper is focused on the most critical scenarios that were addressed by a sub-group through the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling. Once the corresponding source terms for hydrogen releases were known two stages are followed:<br/>♦ Model Validation – to evaluate the CFD models selected by the task partners and to evaluate their performance through comparison to experimental data.<br/>♦ Realistic Release Modelling – to perform demonstration simulations of a range of critical scenarios.<br/>The CFD models selected for the Model Validation have been tested against measured data for a set of experiments involving hydrogen releases. Each experiment accounts for physical features that are encountered in the realistic cases. The selected experiments include an under-expanded hydrogen jet discharging into the open atmosphere with no obstacles or through an array of obstacles. Additionally a very different set-up was studied with buoyancy-driven releases inside a naturally ventilated enclosure. The results of the Model Validation exercise show that the models produce acceptable solutions when compared to measured data and give confidence in the ability of the models and the modellers to capture the behaviour of the realistic releases adequately. The Realistic Release Modelling phase will provide estimation of the flammable gas cloud volume for a set of critical scenarios and will be described at the second stage.

In recent years the use and development of hydrogen as a carbon-free energy carrier have grown. However as hydrogen is flammable with air safety issues are raised. In the case of ignition especially in confined space the flame can accelerate and reach the detonation regime causing severe structural damage [1].<br/>To assess these safety issues it is required to understand the fluid-structure interaction in the case of a detonation impacting a deformable structure and to quantify and model this interaction [2]. At the CEA (Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux energies alternatives) a combustion tube experimental facility [3] for studying the fluid-structure interaction in the case of hydrogen combustion has been developed. Several Photomultipliers and Pressure sensors are placed along the tube to monitor the flame acceleration and the detonation location. A fluid-structure interaction (FSI) module or a non-deformable flange can be placed at the end of the tube. Post-processing of the sensor’s signal will provide insight into the occurring phenomena inside the tube.<br/>Several experimental campaigns have been conducted with various initial conditions and configurations at the end of the tube. In this contribution the experiments resulting in a detonation are presented. First the recorded pressure and velocities will be compared to theoretical values coming from combustion models [4] [5]. Secondly the impulse before and after reflection for thin plate and non-deformable flange will be compared to quantify the energy transmitted to the plate and the influence of the fluid-structure interaction on the reflected shock.