China, People’s Republic

The development of a hydrogen energy-based society is becoming the solution for more and more countries. Fuel cell electric vehicles are the best carriers for developing a hydrogen energy-based society. The current research on hydrogen leakage and the diffusion of fuel cell electric vehicles has been sufficient. However the study of hydrogen safety has not reduced the safety concerns for society and government management departments concerning the large-scale promotion of fuel cell electric vehicles. Hydrogen safety is both a technical and psychological issue. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of fuel cell electric vehicles’ hydrogen dispersion and the burning behavior and introduce the relevant work of international standardization and global technical regulations. The CFD simulations in tunnels underground car parks and multistory car parks show that the hydrogen escape performance is excellent. At the same time the research verifies that the flow the direction of leakage and the vehicle itself are the most critical factors affecting hydrogen distribution. The impact of the leakage location and leakage pore size is much smaller. The relevant studies also show that the risk is still controllable even if the hydrogen leakage rate is increased ten times the limit of GTR 13 to 1000 NL/min and then ignited. Multi-vehicle combustion tests of fuel cell electric vehicles showed that adjacent vehicles were not ignited by the hydrogen. This shows that as long as the appropriate measures are taken the risk of a hydrogen leak or the combustion of fuel cell electric vehicles is controllable. The introduction of relevant standards and regulations also indirectly proves this point. This paper will provide product design guidelines for R&D personnel offer the latest knowledge and guidance to the regulatory agencies and increase the public’s acceptance of fuel cell electric vehicles.

Hydrogen energy leads us in an important direction in the development of clean energy and the comprehensive utilization of hydrogen energy is crucial for the low-carbon transformation of the power sector. In this paper the demand for hydrogen energy in various fields is predicted based on the support vector regression algorithm which can be converted into an equivalent electrical load when it is all produced from water electrolysis. Then the investment costs of power generators and hydrogen energy equipment are forecast considering uncertainty. Furthermore a planning model is established with the forecast data initial installed capacity and targets for carbon emission reduction as inputs and the installed capacity as well as share of various power supply and annual carbon emissions as outputs. Taking Gansu Province of China as an example the changes of power supply structure and carbon emissions under different scenarios are analysed. It can be found that hydrogen production through water electrolysis powered by renewable energy can reduce carbon emissions but will increase the demand for renewable energy generators. Appropriate planning of hydrogen storage can reduce the overall investment cost and promote a low carbon transition of the power system

Energy consumption is essential for evaluating the competitiveness of fuel cell electric vehicles. A critical step in energy consumption measurement is measuring hydrogen consumption including the mass method the P/T method and the flowmeter method. The flowmeter method has always been a research focus because of its simple operation low cost and solid real-time performance. Current research has shown the accuracy of the flowmeter method under specific conditions. However many factors in the real scenario will influence the test result such as unintended vibration environment temperature and onboard hydrogen capacity calibration. On the other hand the short-cut method is also researched to replace the run-out method to improve test efficiency. To evaluate whether the flowmeter method basing on the short-cut method can genuinely reflect the hydrogen consumption of an actual vehicle we research and test for New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and China Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle (CLTC) using the same vehicle. The results show that the short-cut method can save at least 50% of the test time compared with the run-out method. The error of the short-cut method based on the flowmeter for the NEDC working condition is less than 0.1% and for the CLTC working conditions is 8.12%. After adding a throttle valve and a 4L buffer tank the error is reduced to 4.76% from 8.12%. The test results show that hydrogen consumption measurement based on the flowmeter and short-cut method should adopt corresponding solutions according to the scenarios.

Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resin composites have attracted great attention in high pressure hydrogen storage for its light weight and excellent mechanical properties. The degradation of residual mechanical properties at elevated temperature from 20 °C to 450 °C were studied experimentally. The effects of temperature on the tensile strength and failure mode of the composite specimens with stacking sequences of 0° 90° and ±45° (labeled as CF0 CF90 and CF 45) were systematically analyzed followed by the fracture surfaces examination. Results show that the tensile strength residual ratios of the three kinds of specimens decrease significantly with heating temperature increasing. In particular the decomposing temperature of the resin matrix exerts the largest effects on the degradation of tensile strength of CF0 specimen within 450 °C. While the loss of tensile strength of CF90 and CF45 specimens is dependent on the thermal softening of epoxy resin which has closely related to the glass transition temperature. Furthermore the debonding and fiber softening appeared in the CF0 specimens when the temperature reached 450 °C. For CF90 specimens the degradation of bonding strength of epoxy could be found at 150 °C and regarding CF45 specimens delamination cracking between plies occurred extensively when the temperature above 125 °C.

In the context of carbon trading energy conservation and emissions reduction are the development directions of integrated energy systems. In order to meet the development requirements of energy conservation and emissions reduction in the power grid considering the different responses of the system in different time periods a wind-hydrogen integrated multi-time scale energy scheduling model was established to optimize the energy-consumption scheduling problem of the system. As the scheduling model is a multiobjective nonlinear problem the artificial fish swarm algorithm–shuffled frog leaping algorithm (AFS-SFLA) was used to solve the scheduling model to achieve system optimization. In the experimental test process the Griewank benchmark function and the Rosenbrock function were selected to test the performance of the proposed AFS-SFL algorithm. In the Griewank environment compared to the SFLA algorithm the AFS-SFL algorithm was able to find a feasible solution at an early stage and tended to converge after 110 iterations. The optimal solution was −4.83. In the test of total electric power deviation results at different time scales the maximum deviation of early dispatching was 14.58 MW and the minimum deviation was 0.56 MW. The overall deviation of real-time scheduling was the minimum and the minimum deviation was 0 and the maximum deviation was 1.89 WM. The integrated energy system adopted real-time scale dispatching with good system stability and low-energy consumption. Power system dispatching optimization belongs to the objective optimization problem. The artificial fish swarm algorithm and frog algorithm were innovatively combined to solve the dispatching model which improved the accuracy of power grid dispatching. The research content provides an effective reference for the efficient use of clean and renewable energy.

Hydrogen storage is a crucial factor that limits the development of hydrogen energy. This paper proposes using a split liner for the inner structure of a hydrogen storage cylinder. A self-tightening seal is employed to address the sealing problem between the head and the barrel. The feasibility of this structure is demonstrated through hydraulic pressure experiments. The influence laws of the O-ring compression rate the distance from the straight edge section of the head to the sealing groove and the thickness of the head on the sealing performance of gas cylinders in this sealing structure are revealed using finite elements analysis. The results show that when the gas cylinder is subjected to medium internal pressure the maximum contact stress on the O-ring extrusion deformation sealing surface is greater than the medium pressure. There is sufficient contact width that is the arc length of the part where the stress on the O-ring contact surface is greater than the medium pressure so that it can form a good sealing condition. At the same time increasing the compression ratio of the O-ring and the head’s thickness will help improve the sealing performance and reducing the distance from the straight edge section of the head to the sealing groove will also improve the sealing performance.

Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) is promising in developing hydrogen detectors. However typical MOS materials usually work between 200-500°C which not only restricts their application in flammable and explosive gases detection but also weakens sensor stability and causes high power consumption. This paper studies the sensing properties of UV enhanced Pd-SnO2 nano-spherical composites at 80-360 ℃. In the experiment Pd of different molar ratios (0.5 2.5 5.0 10.0) was doped into uniform spherical SnO2 nanoparticles by a hydrothermal synthesis method. A xenon lamp with a filter was used as the ultraviolet excitation light source to examine the response of the spherical Pd- SnO2 nanocomposite to 50-1000 ppm H2 gas. The influence of different intensities of ultraviolet light on the gas-sensing properties of composite materials compared with dark condition was analyzed. The experiments show that the conductivity of the composites can be greatly stabilized and the thermal excitation temperature can be reduced to 180 ℃ under the effect of UV enhancement. A rapid response (4.4/ 17.4 s) to 200 ppm of H2 at 330 °C can be achieved by the Pd-SnO2 nanocomposites with UV assistance. The mechanism may be attributed to light motivated electron-hole pairs due to built-in electric fields under UV light illumination which can be captured by target gases and lead to UV controlled gas sensing performance. Catalytic active sites of hydrogen are provided on the surface of the mixed material by Pd. The results in this study can be helpful in reducing the response temperature of MOS materials and improving the performance of hydrogen detectors."

In the fast filling process in order to control the temperature of the vehicle-mounted storage tank not to exceed the upper limit of 85 ◦C it is an effective method to add a hydrogen pre-cooling system upstream of the hydrogenation machine. In this paper Fluent is used to simulate the heat transfer process of high-pressure hydrogen in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger and the phase change process of refrigerant R23. The accuracy of the model is proven by a comparison with the data in the references. Using this model the temperature field and gas volume fraction in the heat transfer process are obtained which is helpful to analyze the heat transfer mechanism. At the same time the influence of hydrogen inlet temperature hydrogen inlet pressure and refrigerant flow rate on the refrigeration performance was studied. The current work shows that the model can be used to determine the best working parameters in the pre-cooling process and reduce the operating cost of the hydrogen refueling station.

The use of hydrogen is expected to increase rapidly in the future. Leakage of hydrogen pipework are the main forms of safety problems in hydrogen utilization. In this paper a numerical model of hydrogen leakage and diffusion in pipe joints was established. The Schlieren + high-speed camera is used in experiments to observe the leakage of hydrogen in the pipe joints. In addition the shape and size of the scratches in the tube were statistically analyzed. Finally the leakage characteristics of double ferrule joints with scratches are experimentally analyzed. For the two scratch sizes the critical pressure values for the vortex transition are 0.2 MPa and 0.03 MPa. Through our experimental process some practical experience and suggestions are given.

Three different types of symmetrical tilt grain boundaries Ȉ3 Ȉ11 and Ȉ27 were constructed to study the dislocation behavior under the indentation on bi-crystal nickel. After hydrogen charging the number of hydrogen atoms in the Ȉ3 sample is the smallest and gradually increases in Ȉ11 and Ȉ27 samples. The force-displacement curve of indentation shows that the deformation resistance of the Ȉ3 sample is significantly higher than that of Ȉ11 and Ȉ27 samples. With the presence of grain boundaries the deformation resistance of Ȉ11 and Ȉ27 samples is significantly improved while the deformation resistance of the Ȉ3 VDPSOH is weakened. The indentation depth during the formation of dislocations in single  crystals  is  significantly  greater  than  that  of  bi-crystals.  Grain   boundaries  slow  down  the dislocation  propagation speed.  Compared  with  the  bi-crystals   without  hydrogen  the  presence  of hydrogen reduces the deformation resistance and accelerates the dislocation propagation.