Chile

The competition between chemical energy release rate and volumetric expansion related to shock wave’s dynamics is of primary importance for a number of situations relevant to explosion safety. While studies have been performed on this topic over the years they have been limited to mixtures with monotonous energy release profile. In the present study the ignition of H2-NO2/N2O4 mixtures which exhibit a single-step or a two-step energy release rate profile depending on the equivalence ratio has been investigated under volumetric expansion conditions. The rate of expansion has been calculated using the Taylor-Sedov solution and accounted for using 0-D numerical simulations with time-dependent specific volume. The results were analyzed in terms of a Damkohler number defined as the ratio of the expansion to ignition times. For mixtures with non-monotonous energy release rate profiles two critical Damkohler numbers can be identified one for each of the steps of energy release. It was also shown that the fluid element which is the most likely to ignite corresponds to the one behind a shock propagating at the Chapman-Jouguet velocity. The thermo-chemical dynamics have been analyzed about the critical conditions using energy release rate per reaction rate of production and sensitivity analyses.

The paper presents a complete value chain for the use of green hydrogen in a port facility. The main objective was to propose the sizing of the main components that make up green hydrogen to ensure the supply of 1 MWe in replacing the diesel generator. The energy demand required for the port was determined by establishing the leading small and large-scale conventional energyconsuming equipment. Hence 60 kgH2 was required to ensure the power supply. The total electrical energy to produce all the hydrogen was generated from photovoltaic solar energy considering threegeneration scenarios (minimum maximum and the annual average). In all cases the energy supply in the electrolyzer was 3.08 MWe. In addition the effect of generating in the port facility using a diesel generator and a fuel cell was compared. The cost of 1 kgH2 could be 4.09 times higher than the cost of 1 L of diesel meaning that the output kWh of each system is economically similar. In addition the value of electrical energy through a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) was a maximum of 79.79 times the value of a liter of diesel. Finally the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) was calculated for two conditions in which the MWe was obtained from the fuel cell without and with the photovoltaic solar plant.

A CsH and KH co-doped Mg(NH₂)₂/2LiH composite was prepared with a composition of Mg(NH₂)₂/2LiH–(0.08 − x)CsH–xKH and the hydrogen storage characteristics was systematically investigated. The results showed that the presence of KH further improved the reaction thermodynamics and kinetics of hydrogen storage in a CsH-containing Mg(NH₂)₂/2LiH system. A sample with 0.04 mol CsH and 0.04 mol KH had optimal hydrogen storage performance; its dehydrogenation could proceed at 130 °C and hydrogenation at 120 °C with 4.89 wt% of hydrogen storage capacity. At 130 °C a 25-fold increase in the dehydrogenation rate was achieved for the CsH and KH co-doped sample. More importantly the CsH and KH co-doped sample also had good cycling stability because more than 97% of the hydrogen storage capacity (4.34 wt%) remained for theMg(NH₂)₂/2LiH–0.04CsH–0.04KH sample after 30 cycles. A structural characterization revealed that added CsH and KH participated in the dehydrogenation and hydrogenation reactions by reversibly forming mixed amides of Li–K and Cs–Mg which caused the improved hydrogen storage thermodynamics and kinetics.

Decarbonising and decontaminating remote regions in the world presents several challenges. Many of these regions feature isolation dispersed demand in large areas and a lack of economic resources that impede the development of robust and sustainable networks. Furthermore isolated systems in the developing world are mostly based on diesel generation for electricity and firewood and liquefied petroleum gas for heating as these options do not require a significant infrastructure cost. In this context we present a stochastic multi-energy multi-microgrid system planning model that integrates electricity heat and hydrogen networks in isolated systems. The model is stochastic to capture uncertainty in renewable generation outputs particularly hydro and wind and thus design a multi-energy system proved secured against such uncertainty. The model also features two distinct constraints to limit the emissions of CO2 (for decarbonisation) and particulate matter (for decontamination) and incorporates firewood as a heating source. Moreover given that the focus is on low-voltage networks we introduce a fully linear AC power flow equations set allowing the planning model to remain tractable. The model is applied to a real-world case study to design a multi-energy multi-microgrid system in an isolated region in Chilean Patagonia. In a case with a zero limit over direct CO2 emissions the total system’s cost increases by 34% with respect to an unconstrained case. In a case with a zero limit over particulate matter emissions the total system’s cost increases by 189%. Finally although an absolute zero limit over both particulate matter and direct CO2 emissions leads to a total system’s cost increase of 650% important benefits in terms of decarbonisation and decontamination can be achieved at marginal cost increments.

As result of the adverse effects caused by climate change the nations have decided to accelerate the transition of the energy matrix through the use of non-conventional sources free of polluting emissions. One of these alternatives is green hydrogen. In this context Chile stands out for the exceptional climate that makes it a country with a lot of renewable resources. Such availability of resources gives the nation clear advantages for hydrogen production strong gusts of wind throughout the country the most increased solar radiation in the world lower cost of production of electrical supplies among others. Due to this the nation would be between the lowest estimated cost for hydrogen production i.e. 1.5 USD/kg H2 approximately scenario that would place it as one of the cheapest green hydrogen producer in the world.

This study assessed the feasibility of integrating a green hydrogen value chain into the local industry examining two case studies by comparing four scenarios. The optimization focused on generating electricity from stationary renewable sources such as solar or through Power Purchase Agreements to produce sufficient hydrogen in electrolyzers. Current demand profiles renewable participation targets electricity supply sources levelized costs of energy and hydrogen and technology options were considered. The most cost-effective scenario showed a levelized cost of energy of 0.032 and 0.05 US$/kWh and a hydrogen cost below 1.0 US$/kgH2 for cases 1 and 2 respectively. A sensitivity analysis highlighted the critical influence of fuel cell technology on cost modification underscoring the importance of focusing cost reduction strategies on these technologies to enhance the economic viability of the green hydrogen value chain. Specifically a high sensitivity towards reducing the levelized costs of energy and hydrogen in the port sector with adjustments in fuel cell technology costs was identified indicating the need for specific policies and supports to facilitate their adoption.

In this paper we implement a long-term multi-sectoral energy planning model to evaluate the role of green hydrogen in the energy mix of Chile a country with a high renewable potential under stringent emission reduction objectives in 2050. Our results show that green hydrogen is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly route especially for hard-to-abate sectors such as interprovincial and freight transport. They also suggest a strong synergy of hydrogen with electricity generation from renewable sources. Our numerical simulations show that Chile should (i) start immediately to develop hydrogen production through electrolyzers all along the country (ii) keep investing in wind and solar generation capacities ensuring a low cost hydrogen production and reinforce the power transmission grid to allow nodal hydrogen production (iii) foster the use of electric mobility for cars and local buses and of hydrogen for long-haul trucks and interprovincial buses and (iv) develop seasonal hydrogen storage and hydrogen cells to be exploited for electricity supply especially for the most stringent emission reduction objectives.

In this study we present a pre-feasibility analysis that examines the viability of implementing autonomous green hydrogen production plants in two strategic regions of Chile. With abundant renewable energy resources and growing interest in decarbonization in Chile this study aims to provide a comprehensive financial analysis from the perspective of project initiators. The assessment includes determining the optimal sizing of an alkaline electrolyzer stack seawater desalination system and solar and wind renewable energy farms and the focus is on conducting a comprehensive financial analysis from the perspective of project initiators to assess project profitability using key economic indicators such as net present value (NPV). The analyses involve determining appropriate sizing of an alkaline electrolyzer stack a seawater desalination system and solar and wind renewable energy farms. Assuming a base case production of 1 kiloton per year of hydrogen the capital expenditures (CAPEX) and operating expenses (OPEX) are determined. Then the manufacturing and production costs per kilogram of green hydrogen are calculated resulting in values of USD 3.53 kg−1 (utilizing wind energy) and USD 5.29 kg−1 (utilizing photovoltaic solar energy). Cash flows are established by adjusting the sale price of hydrogen to achieve a minimum expected return on investment of 4% per year yielding minimum prices of USD 7.84 kg−1 (with wind energy) and USD 11.10 kg−1 (with photovoltaic solar energy). Additionally a sensitivity analysis is conducted to assess the impact of variations in investment and operational costs. This research provides valuable insights into the financial feasibility of green hydrogen production in Chile contributing to understanding renewable energy-based hydrogen projects and their potential economic benefits. These results can provide a reference for future investment decisions and the global development of green hydrogen production plants.

The continued use of energy sources based on fossil fuels has various repercussions for the environment. These repercussions are being minimized through the use of renewable energy supplies and new techniques to decarbonize the global energy matrix. For many years hydrogen has been one of the most used gases in all kinds of industry and now it is possible to produce it efficiently on a large scale and in a non-polluting way. This gas is mainly used in the chemical industry and in the oil refining industry but the constant growth of its applications has generated the interest of all the countries of the world. Its use in transportation petrochemical industries heating equipment etc. will result in a decrease in the production of greenhouse gases which are harmful to the environment. This means hydrogen is widely used and needed by countries creating great opportunities for hydrogen export business. This paper details concepts about the production of green hydrogen its associated technologies and demand projections. In addition the current situation of several countries regarding the use of this new fuel their national strategy and advances in research carried out in different parts of the world for various hydrogen generation projects are discussed. Additionally the great opportunities that Chile has for this new hydrogen export business thanks to the renewable energy production capacities in the north and south of the country are discussed. The latter is key for countries that require large amounts of hydrogen to meet the demand from various industrial energy and transportation sectors. Therefore it is of global importance to determine the real capacities that this country has in the face of this new green fuel. For this modeling was carried out through mathematical representations showing the behavior of the technologies involved in the production of hydrogen for a system composed of an on-grid photovoltaic plant an electrolyser and compressor together with a storage system. The program optimized the capacities of the equipment in such a way as to reduce the costs of hydrogen production and thereby demonstrate Chile’s capacity for the production of this fuel. From this it was found that the LCOH for the case study was equivalent to 3.5 USD/kg which is not yet considered a profitable value for the long term. Due to this five case studies were analyzed to see what factors influence the LCOH and thereby reduce it as much as possible.