Production & Supply Chain

In this work methanol decomposition method has been discussed for the production of hydrogen gas with the application of plasma. A simple dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma reactor was designed for this purpose with two types of electrode. The DBD plasma reactor was experimented by substituting one of the metal electrodes with feebly conducting sea water which yielded better efficiency in producing hydrogen gas. Experimental parameters such as; discharge voltage and time were varied by maintaining a discharge gap of 1.5 mm and the plasma discharge characteristics were studied. Filamentary type micro-discharges were found to be formed which was observed as numerous streamer clusters in the current waveform. Gas chromatographic study confirmed the production of hydrogen gas with residence time around 3.6 min. Although the concentration (%) of H2 was high (98.1 %) and consistent with copper electrode assembly the rate of formation and concentration was found to be the highest (98.7 %) for water electrode for specific discharge voltage. The energy efficiency was found to be 0.5 mol H2/kWh and 1.2 mol H2/kWh for metal (Cu) and water electrodes respectively. The electrode material significantly affects the plasma condition and hence the rate of hydrogen production. Compositional analysis of the water used as electrode showed a minimal change in the composition even after the completion of the experiment as compared to the untreated water. Methanol degradation study shows the presence of untreated methanol in the residue of the plasma reactor which has been confirmed from the absorption spectra.

Steam methane reforming (SMR) process is regarded as a viable option to satisfy the growing demand for hydrogen mainly because of its capability for the mass production of hydrogen and the maturity of the technology. In this study an economically optimal process configuration of SMR is proposed by investigating six scenarios with different design and operating conditions including CO₂ emission permits and CO₂ capture and sale. Of the six scenarios the process configuration involving CO₂ capture and sale is the most economical with an H₂ production cost of $1.80/kg-H₂. A wide range of economic analyses is performed to identify the tradeoffs and cost drivers of the SMR process in the economically optimal scenario. Depending on the CO₂ selling price and the CO₂ capture cost the economic feasibility of the SMR-based H₂ production process can be further improved.

In recent years photocatalytic technology driven by solar energy has been extensively investigated to ease energy crisis and environmental pollution. Nevertheless efficiency and stability of photocatalysts are still unsatisfactory. To address these issues design of advanced photocatalysts is important. Cadmium sulphide (CdS) nanomaterials are one of the promising photocatalysts. Among them hollow-structured CdS featured with enhanced light absorption ability large surface area abundant active sites for redox reactions and reduced diffusion distance of photogenerated carriers reveals a broad application prospect. Herein main synthetic strategies and formation mechanism of hollow CdS photocatalysts are summarized. Besides we comprehensively discuss the current development of hollow-structured CdS nanomaterials in photocatalytic applications including H₂ production CO₂ reduction and pollutant degradation. Finally brief conclusions and perspectives on the challenges and future directions for hollow CdS photocatalysts are proposed.

The use of hydrogen as a clean and renewable alternative to fossil fuels requires a suite of flammability mitigating technologies particularly robust sensors for hydrogen leak detection and concentration monitoring. To this end we have developed a class of lightweight optical hydrogen sensors based on a metasurface of Pd nano-patchy particle arrays which fulfills the increasing requirements of a safe hydrogen fuel sensing system with no risk of sparking. The structure of the optical sensor is readily nano-engineered to yield extraordinarily rapid response to hydrogen gas (<3 s at 1 mbar H2) with a high degree of accuracy (<5%). By incorporating 20% Ag Au or Co the sensing performances of the Pd-alloy sensor are significantly enhanced especially for the Pd80Co20 sensor whose optical response time at 1 mbar of H2 is just ~0.85 s while preserving the excellent accuracy (<2.5%) limit of detection (2.5 ppm) and robustness against aging temperature and interfering gases. The superior performance of our sensor places it among the fastest and most sensitive optical hydrogen sensors.

The urgency of reaching net-zero emissions requires a rapid acceleration in the deployment of all emissions reducing technologies. Near-zero emissions hydrogen (clean hydrogen) has the potential to make a significant contribution to emissions reduction in the power generation transportation and industrial sectors.

As part of the Circular Carbon Economy: Keystone to Global Sustainability series with the Center on Global Energy Policy at Columbia University SIPA this report explores the potential contribution of blue hydrogen to climate mitigation.

The report looks at:

• Cost drivers for renewable hydrogen and hydrogen produced with fossil fuels and CCS;
• Resource requirements and cost reduction opportunities for clean hydrogen; and
• Policy recommendations to drive investment in clean hydrogen production.
• Blue hydrogen is well placed to kickstart the rapid increase in the utilisation of clean hydrogen for climate mitigation purposes but requires strong and sustained policy to incentivise investment at the rate necessary to meet global climate goals.

Read the full report on the Global CSS Institute Website at this link

Arup have conducted interviews with targeted industry and government stakeholders to gather data and perspectives to support the development of this study. Arup have also utilised private and publicly available data sources building on recent work undertaken by Geoscience Australia and Deloitte and the comprehensive stakeholder engagement process to inform our research. This study considers the supply chain and infrastructure requirements to support the development of export and domestic hubs. The study aims to provide a succinct “Hydrogen Hubs” report for presentation to the hydrogen working group.



The hydrogen supply chain infrastructure required to produce hydrogen for export and domestic hubs was identified along with feedback from the stakeholder engagement process. These infrastructure requirements can be used to determine the factors for assessing export and domestic hub opportunities. Hydrogen production pathways transportation mechanisms and uses were also further evaluated to identify how hubs can be used to balance supply and demand of hydrogen.



A preliminary list of current or anticipated locations has been developed through desktop research Arup project knowledge and the stakeholder consultation process. Over 30 potential hydrogen export locations have been identified in Australia through desktop research and the stakeholder survey and consultation process. In addition to establishing export hubs the creation of domestic demand hubs will be essential to the development of an Australian hydrogen economy. It is for this reason that a list of criteria has been developed for stakeholders to consider in the siting and design of hydrogen hubs. The key considerations explored are based on demand supply chain infrastructure and investment and policy areas.



Based on these considerations a list of criteria were developed to assess the viability of export and domestic hydrogen hubs. Criteria relevant to assessing the suitability of export and domestic hubs include:

• Health and safety provisions;
• Environmental considerations;
• Economic and social considerations;
• Land availability with appropriate zoning and buffer distances & ownership (new terminals storage solar PV industries etc.);•
• Availability of gas pipeline infrastructure;
• Availability of electricity grid connectivity backup energy supply or co-location of renewables;
• Road & rail infrastructure (site access);
• Community and environmental concerns and weather. Social licence consideration;
• Berths (berthing depth ship storage loading facilities existing LNG and/or petroleum infrastructure etc.);
• Port potential (current capacity & occupancy expandability & scalability);
• Availability of or potential for skilled workers (construction & operation);
• Availability of or potential for water (recycled & desalinated);
• Opportunity for co-location with industrial ammonia production and future industrial opportunities;
• Interest (projects priority ports state development areas politics etc.);
• Shipping distance to target market (Japan & South Korea);
• Availability of demand-based infrastructure (i.e. refuelling stations).

A framework that includes the assessment criteria has been developed to aid decision making rather than recommending specific locations that would be most appropriate for a hub. This is because there are so many dynamic factors that go into selecting a location of a hydrogen hub that it is not appropriate to be overly prescriptive or prevent stakeholders from selecting the best location themselves or from the market making decisions based on its own research and knowledge. The developed framework rather provides information and support to enable these decision-making processes.

Microwave heating offers a number of advantages over conventional heating methods such as rapid and volumetric heating precise temperature control energy efficiency and lower temperature gradient. In this article we demonstrate the use of 2450 MHz microwave traveling wave reactor to heat the catalyst bed for thermo-catalytic upgrading of pyrolysis vapors. HZSM-5 catalyst was tested at three different temperatures (290 330  and 370°C) at a catalyst to biomass ratio of 2. Results were compared with conventional heating and induction heating method of catalyst bed. The yields of aromatic compounds and coke deposition were dependent on temperature and method of heating. Microwave heating yielded higher aromatic compounds and lower coke deposition. Microwave heating was also energy efficient compared to conventional reactors. The rate of catalyst deterioration was lower for catalyst heated in microwave system.

Climate change and global warming as well as growing global demand for hydrocarbons in industrial sectors make great incentives to investigate the utilization of CO₂ for hydrocarbons production. Therefore finding an in-depth understanding of the CO₂ hydrogenation reactors along with simulating reactor responses to different operating conditions are of paramount importance. However the reaction mechanisms for CO₂ hydrogenation and their corresponding kinetic parameters have been disputable yet. In this regard considering the previously proposed Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) mechanism which considered CO₂ hydrogenation as a combination of reverse water gas shift (RWGS) and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reactions and using a one-dimensional pseudo-homogeneous non-isothermal model kinetic parameters of the rate expressions are estimated via fitting experimental and modelling data through a novel swarm intelligence optimization technique called dragonfly algorithm (DA). The predicted reactants conversion using DA algorithm are closer to the experimental data (with about 4% error) comparing to those obtained by the artificial bee colony (ABC) algorithm and are in significant agreement with available literature data. The proposed model is used to assess the effect of reactor configuration on the performance and temperature fluctuations. Results show that axial flow spherical reactor (AFSR) and radial flow spherical reactor (RFSR) exhibiting the same surface area with that of the cylindrical reactor (CR) i.e. AFSR-2 and RFSR-2-i are the most efficient exhibiting hydrocarbons selectivity of 40.330% and 40.286% at CO₂ conversion of 53.763% and 53.891%. In addition it is revealed that the location of the jacket has an essential role in controlling the reactor temperature.

Interactions between incident electromagnetic energy and matter are of critical importance for numerous civil and military applications such as photocatalysis solar cells optics radar detection communications information processing and transport et al. Traditional mechanisms for such interactions in the microwave frequency mainly rely on dipole rotations and magnetic domain resonance. In this study we present the first report of the microwave absorption of Al/H₂ treated TiO₂ nanoparticles where the Al/H₂ treatment not only induces structural and optical property changes but also largely improves the microwave absorption performance of TiO₂ nanoparticles. Moreover the frequency of the microwave absorption can be finely controlled with the treatment temperature and the absorption efficiency can reach optimal values with a careful temperature tuning. A large reflection loss of −58.02 dB has been demonstrated with 3.1 mm TiO₂ coating when the treating temperature is 700 °C. The high efficiency of microwave absorption is most likely linked to the disordering-induced property changes in the materials. Along with the increased microwave absorption properties are largely increased visible-light and IR absorptions and enhanced electrical conductivity and reduced skin-depth which is likely related to the interfacial defects within the TiO₂ nanoparticles caused by the Al/H₂ treatment.

Despite the tremendous progress of coupling organic electrooxidation with hydrogen generation in a hybrid electrolysis electroreforming of raw biomass coupled to green hydrogen generation has not been reported yet due to the rigid polymeric structures of raw biomass. Herein we electrooxidize the most abundant natural amino biopolymer chitin to acetate with over 90% yield in hybrid electrolysis. The overall energy consumption of electrolysis can be reduced by 15% due to the thermodynamically and kinetically more favorable chitin oxidation over water oxidation. In obvious contrast to small organics as the anodic reactant the abundance of chitin endows the new oxidation reaction excellent scalability. A solar-driven electroreforming of chitin and chitin-containing shrimp shell waste is coupled to safe green hydrogen production thanks to the liquid anodic product and suppression of oxygen evolution. Our work thus demonstrates a scalable and safe process for resource upcycling and green hydrogen production for a sustainable energy future.

This paper investigates environmental impacts of high pressure alkaline water electrolysis systems. An advanced system with membranes on polymer basis is compared to a state-of-the-art system with asbestos membranes using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. For the advanced system a new improved membrane technology has been investigated within the EU research project “ELYGRID”. Results indicate that most environmental impacts are caused by the electricity supply necessary for operation. During the construction phase cell stacks are the main contributor to environmental impacts. New improved membranes have relatively small contributions to impacts caused by cell construction within the advanced systems. As main outcome the systems comparison illustrates a better ecological performance of the new developed system

The purpose of the hydrogen molecule market analysis is to track changes in the structure of hydrogen supply and demand in Europe. This report is mainly focused on presenting the current landscape - that will allow for future year-on-year comparisons in order to assess the progress Europe is making with regards to deployment of clean hydrogen production capacities as well as development of demand for clean hydrogen from emerging new hydrogen applications in the mobility sector or in industry. The following report summarizes the hydrogen molecule market landscape and contains data about hydrogen production and consumption in the EEA countries (EU countries together with Switzerland Norway Iceland and Liechtenstein). Hydrogen production capacity is presented by country and by technology whereas the hydrogen consumption data is presented by country and by end-use sector. The analysis undertaken for this report was completed using data available at the end of 2019. Hydrogen market (on both the demand and supply side) is dominated by ammonia and refining industries with three countries (DE NL PL) responsible for almost half hydrogen consumption. Today hydrogen is overwhelmingly produced by reforming of fossil fuels (mostly natural gas). Clean hydrogen production capacities are insignificant with blue hydrogen capacities at below 1% and green hydrogen production capacity below 0.1% of total.

Owing to the high hydrogen content hydrocarbons are considered as an alternative source for hydrogen energy purposes. Complete decomposition of hydrocarbons results in the formation of gaseous hydrogen and solid carbonaceous by-product. The process is complicated by the methane formation reaction when the released hydrogen interacts with the formed carbon deposits. The present study is focused on the effects of the reaction mixture composition. Variations in the inlet hydrogen and methane concentrations were found to influence the carbon product’s morphology and the hydrogen production efficiency. The catalyst containing NiO (82 wt%) CuO (13 wt%) and Al2O3 (5 wt%) was prepared via a mechanochemical activating procedure. Kinetics of the catalytic process of hydrocarbons decomposition was studied using a reactor equipped with McBain balances. The effects of the process parameters were explored in a tubular quartz reactor with chromatographic analysis of the outlet gaseous products. In the latter case the catalyst was loaded piecemeal. The texture and morphology of the produced carbon deposits were investigated by nitrogen adsorption and electron microscopy techniques.

A new spinelized Ni catalyst (Ni-UGSO) using Ni(NO₃)₂·6H₂O as the Ni precursor was prepared according to a less material intensive protocol. The support of this catalyst is a negative-value mining residue UpGraded Slag Oxide (UGSO) produced from a TiO2 slag production unit. Applied to dry reforming of methane (DRM) at atmospheric pressure T = 810 °C space velocity of 3400 mL/(h·g) and molar CO₂/CH₄ = 1.2 Ni-UGSO gives a stable over 168 h time-on-stream methane conversion of 92%. In this DRM reaction optimization study: (1) the best performance is obtained with the 10–13 wt% Ni load; (2) the Ni-UGSO catalysts obtained from two different batches of UGSO demonstrated equivalent performances despite their slight differences in composition; (3) the sulfur-poisoning resistance study shows that at up to 5.5 ppm no Ni-UGSO deactivation is observed. In steam reforming of methane (SRM) Ni-UGSO was tested at 900 °C and a molar ratio of H₂O/CH₄ = 1.7. In this experimental range CH4 conversion rapidly reached 98% and remained stable over 168 h time-on-stream (TOS). The same stability is observed for H₂ and CO yields at around 92% and 91% respectively while H₂/CO was close to 3. In mixed (dry and steam) methane reforming using a ratio of H₂O/CH₄ = 0.15 and CO2/CH4 = 0.97 for 74 h and three reaction temperature levels (828 °C 847 °C and 896 °C) CH₄ conversion remains stable; 80% at 828 °C (26 h) 85% at 847 °C (24 h) and 95% at 896 °C (24 h). All gaseous streams have been analyzed by gas chromatography. Both fresh and used catalysts are analyzed by scanning electron microscopy-electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDXS) X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) coupled with mass spectroscopy (MS) and BET Specific surface. In the reducing environment of reforming such catalytic activity is mainly attributed to (a) alloys such as FeNi FeNi3 and Fe3Ni2 (reduction of NiFe2O4 FeNiAlO4) and (b) to the solid solution NiO-MgO. The latter is characterized by a molecular distribution of the catalytically active Ni phase while offering an environment that prevents C deposition due to its alkalinity.

Biomass is plant or animal material that stores both chemical and solar energies and that is widely used for heat production and various industrial processes. Biomass contains a large amount of the element hydrogen so it is an excellent source for hydrogen production. Therefore biomass is a sustainable source for electricity or hydrogen production. Although biomass power plants and reforming plants have been commercialized it remains a difficult challenge to develop more effective and economic technologies to further improve the conversion efficiency and reduce the environmental impacts in the conversion process. The use of biomass-based flow fuel cell technology to directly convert biomass to electricity and the use of electrolysis technology to convert biomass into hydrogen at a low temperature are two new research areas that have recently attracted interest. This paper first briefly introduces traditional technologies related to the conversion of biomass to electricity and hydrogen and then reviews the new developments in flow biomass fuel cells (FBFCs) and biomass electrolysis for hydrogen production (BEHP) in detail. Further challenges in these areas are discussed.

The power-to-methane technology is promising for long-term high-capacity energy storage. Currently there are two different industrial-scale methanation methods: the chemical one (based on the Sabatier reaction) and the biological one (using microorganisms for the conversion). The second method can be used not only to methanize the mixture of pure hydrogen and carbon dioxide but also to methanize the hydrogen and carbon dioxide content of low-quality gases such as biogas or deponia gas enriching them to natural gas quality; therefore the applicability of biomethanation is very wide. In this paper we present an overview of the existing and planned industrial-scale biomethanation facilities in Europe as well as review the facilities closed in recent years after successful operation in the light of the scientific and socioeconomic context. To outline key directions for further developments this paper interconnects biomethanation projects with the competitiveness of the energy sector in Europe for the first time in the literature. The results show that future projects should have an integrative view of electrolysis and biomethanation as well as hydrogen storage and utilization with carbon capture and utilization (HSU&CCU) to increase sectoral competitiveness by enhanced decarbonization.

The use of nuclear reactors is a large studied possible solution for thermochemical water splitting cycles. Nevertheless there are several problems that have to be solved. One of them is to increase the efficiency of the cycles. Hence in this paper a thermal energy optimization of a SulfureIodine nuclear hydrogen production cycle was performed by means a heuristic method with the aim of minimizing the energy targets of the heat exchanger network at different minimum temperature differences. With this method four different heat exchanger networks are proposed. A reduction of the energy requirements for cooling ranges between 58.9-59.8% and 52.6-53.3% heating compared to the reference design with no heat exchanger network. With this reduction the thermal efficiency of the cycle increased in about 10% in average compared to the reference efficiency. This improves the use of thermal energy of the cycle.

In the future hydrogen (H2) will play a significant role in the sustainable supply of energy and raw materials to various sectors. Therefore the electrolysis of water required for industrial‐ scale H2 production represents a key component in the generation of renewable electricity. Within the scope of fundamental research work on cell components for polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers and application‐oriented living labs an MW electrolysis system was used to further improve industrial‐scale electrolysis technology in terms of its basic structure and systems‐ related integration. The planning of this work as well as the analytical and technical approaches taken along with the essential results of research and development are presented herein. The focus of this study is the test facility for a megawatt PEM electrolysis stack with the presentation of the design processing and assembly of the main components of the facility and stack.

This discussion paper is for stakeholders who would like to shape the development of Victoria’s emerging green hydrogen sector identifying competitive advantages and priority focus areas for industry and the Victorian Government.<br/>The Victorian Government is using this paper to focus on the economic growth and sector development opportunities emerging for a Victorian hydrogen industry powered by renewable energy also known as ‘green’ hydrogen. In addition this paper seeks input from all stakeholders on how where and when the Victorian Government can act to establish a thriving green hydrogen economy.<br/>Although green hydrogen is the only type of hydrogen production within the scope of this discussion paper the development of the VHIP aligns with the policies projects and initiatives which support these other forms of hydrogen production. The VHIP is considering the broad policy landscape and actively coordinating with related hydrogen programs policies and strategies under development including the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) Energy Council’s National Hydrogen Strategy to ensure a complementary approach. In Victoria there are several programs and strategies in development and underway that have linkages with hydrogen and the VHIP.

We present a method that operates an electrolyzer to meet the demand of a hydrogen refueling station in a cost-effective manner by solving a model-based optimal control problem. To formulate the underlying problem we first conduct an experimental characterization of a Siemens SILYZER 100 polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer with 100 kW of rated power. We run experiments to determine the electrolyzer’s conversion efficiency and thermal dynamics as well as the overload-limiting algorithm used in the electrolyzer. The resulting detailed nonlinear models are used to design a real-time optimal controller which is then implemented on the actual system. Each minute the controller solves a deterministic receding-horizon problem which seeks to minimize the cost of satisfying a given hydrogen demand while using a storage tank to take advantage of time-varying electricity prices and photovoltaic inflow. We illustrate in simulation the significant cost reduction achieved by our method compared to others in the literature and then validate our method by demonstrating it in real-time operation on the actual system.

This study investigates the decomposition of methane using solar thermal energy as a heat source. Instead of the direct thermal decomposition of the methane at a temperature of 1200 ◦C or higher a catalyst coated with carbon black on a metal foam was used to lower the temperature and activation energy required for the reaction and to increase the yield. To supply solar heat during the reaction a reactor suitable for a solar concentrating system was developed. In this process a direct heating type reactor with quartz was initially applied and a number of problems were identified. An indirect heating type reactor with an insulated cavity and a rotating part was subsequently developed followed by a thermal barrier coating application. Methane decomposition experiments were conducted in a 40 kW solar furnace at the Korea Institute of Energy Research. Conversion rates of 96.7% and 82.6% were achieved when the methane flow rate was 20 L/min and 40 L/min respectively.

Deployment and investments in hydrogen have accelerated rapidly in response to government commitments to deep decarbonisation establishing hydrogen as a key component in the energy transition.

To help guide regulators decision-makers and investors the Hydrogen Council collaborated with McKinsey & Company to release the report ‘Hydrogen Insights 2021: A Perspective on Hydrogen Investment Deployment and Cost Competitiveness’. The report offers a comprehensive perspective on market deployment around the world investment momentum as well as implications on cost competitiveness of hydrogen solutions.

The document can be downloaded from their website

In the last couple of years there has been increasing recognition by key players in the European gas industry that to mitigate the risk of terminal decline in the context of a decarbonising energy system there will need to be rapid scale up of decarbonised gas. This has led to several projections of the scale of decarbonised gas which could potentially be supplied by 2030 2040 or 2050. This paper joint with the Sustainable Gas Institute at Imperial College London considers the very significant rate of scale up and the significant cost reductions contemplated by such projections.  Based on a database of actual announced projects (both committed and in earlier stages of development) for production of decarbonised gas it then considers the extent to which project activity is consistent with meeting the ambitious projections. It identifies a significant gap in current levels of activity largely because there is not yet sufficient economic incentive for investors to develop the required projects. It is intended that this paper will form the basis of continued tracking of the level of activity over the coming years to help inform industry players of further actions which may be required.

Currently hydrogen production is based on the reforming process leading to the emission of pollutants; therefore a substitute production method is imminently required. Water electrolysis is an ideal alternative for large-scale hydrogen production as it does not produce any carbon-based pollutant byproducts. The production of green hydrogen from water electrolysis using intermittent sources (e.g. solar and eolic sources) would facilitate clean energy storage. However the electrocatalysts currently required for water electrolysis are noble metals making this potential option expensive and inaccessible for industrial applications. Therefore there is a need to develop electrocatalysts based on earth-abundant and low-cost metals. Nickel-based electrocatalysts are a fitting alternative because they are economically accessible. Extensive research has focused on developing nickel-based electrocatalysts for hydrogen and oxygen evolution. Theoretical and experimental work have addressed the elucidation of these electrochemical processes and the role of heteroatoms structure and morphology. Even though some works tend to be contradictory they have lit up the path for the development of efficient nickel-based electrocatalysts. For these reasons a review of recent progress is presented herein.

A joint experimental and numerical investigation of turbulent flame anchoring at externally heated walls is presented. The phenomenon has primarily been studied for laminar flames and micro-combustion while this study focuses on large-scale applications and elevated Reynolds number flows. Therefore a novel burner design is developed and examined for a diverse set of operating conditions. Hydroxyl radical chemiluminescence measurements are employed to validate the numerical method. The numerical investigation evaluates the performance of various hydrogen/air kinetics Reynolds-averaged turbulence models and the eddy dissipation concept (EDC) as a turbulence-chemistry interaction model. Simulation results show minor differences between detailed chemical mechanisms but pronounced deviations for a reduced kinetic. The baseline k-ω turbulence model is assessed to most accurately predict flame front position and shape. Universal applicability of EDC modelling constants is contradicted. Conclusively the flame anchoring concept is considered a promising approach for pilot flames in continuous combustion devices.