Applications & Pathways

The energy transition from hydrocarbon-based energy sources to renewable and carbon-free energy sources such as wind solar and hydrogen is facing increasing demands. The decarbonization of global transportation could come true via applying carbon-free fuel such as ammonia especially for internal combustion engines (ICEs). Although ammonia has advantages of high hydrogen content high octane number and safety in storage it is uninflammable with low laminar burning velocity thus limiting its direct usage in ICEs. The purpose of this review paper is to provide previous studies and current research on the current technical advances emerging in assisted combustion of ammonia. The limitation of ammonia utilization in ICEs such as large minimum ignition energy lower flame speed and more NOx emission with unburned NH3 could be solved by oxygen-enriched combustion ammonia–hydrogen mixed combustion and plasma-assisted combustion (PAC). In dual-fuel or oxygen-enriched NH3 combustion accelerated flame propagation speeds are driven by abundant radicals such as H and OH; however NOx emission should be paid special attention. Furthermore dissociating NH3 in situ hydrogen by non-noble metal catalysts or plasma has the potential to replace dual-fuel systems. PAC is able to change classical ignition and extinction S-curves to monotonic stretching which makes low-temperature ignition possible while leading moderate NOx emissions. In this review the underlying fundamental mechanism under these technologies are introduced in detail providing new insight into overcoming the bottleneck of applying ammonia in ICEs. Finally the feasibility of ammonia processing as an ICE power source for transport and usage highlights it as an appealing choice for the link between carbon-free energy and power demand.

This study presents a Two-Layer Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TL-DDPG) energy management strategy for Hydrogen fuel cell hybrid train that aims to solve the problem that traditional reinforcement learning strategies require high initial values and are difficult to optimize global variables. Augmenting the optimization capabilities of the inner layer a frequency decoupling algorithm integrates into the outer layer furnishing a fitting initial value for strategy optimization. This addition aims to bolster the stability of fuel cell output thereby enhancing the overall efficiency of the hybrid power system. In comparison with the traditional reinforcement learning algorithm the proposed approach demonstrates notable improvements: a reduction in hydrogen consumption per 100 km by 16.3 kg a 9.7% increase in the output power stability of the fuel cell and a 1.8% enhancement in its efficiency.

Hydrogen as an energy carrier could help decarbonize industrial building and transportation sectors and be used in fuel cells to generate electricity power or heat. One of the numerous ways to solve the climate crisis is to make the vehicles on our roads as clean as possible. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have demonstrated a high potential in storing and converting chemical energy into electricity with zero carbon dioxide emissions. This review paper comprehensively assesses hydrogen’s potential as an innovative alternative for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in transportation particularly for on-board applications. To evaluate the industry’s current status and future challenges the work analyses the technology behind FCEVs and hydrogen storage approaches for on-board applications followed by a market review. It has been found that to achieve long-range autonomy (over 500 km) FCEVs must be capable of storing 5–10 kg of hydrogen in compressed vessels at 700 bar with Type IV vessels being the primary option in use. Carbon fiber is the most expensive component in vessel manufacturing contributing to over 50% of the total cost. However the cost of FCEV storage systems has considerably decreased with current estimates around 15.7 $/kWh and is predicted to drop to 8 $/kWh by 2030. In 2021 Toyota Hyundai Mercedes-Benz and Honda were the major car brands offering FCEV technology globally. Although physical and chemical storage technologies are expected to be valuable to the hydrogen economy compressed hydrogen storage remains the most advanced technology for on-board applications.

In order to promote low-carbon fuels such as hydrogen to decarbonize the maritime sector it is crucial to promote clean fuels and zero-emission propulsion systems in demonstrative projects and to showcase innovative technologies such as fuel cells in vessels operating in local public transport that could increase general audience acceptability thanks to their showcase potential. In this study a short sea journey ferry used in the port of Genova as a public transport vehicle is analyzed to evaluate a ”zero emission propulsion” retrofitting process. In the paper different types of solutions (batteries proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)) and fuels (hydrogen ammonia natural gas and methanol) are investigated to identify the most feasible technology to be implemented onboard according to different aspects: ferry daily journey and scheduling available volumes and spaces propulsion power needs energy storage/fuel tank capacity needed economics etc. The paper presents a multi-aspect analysis that resulted in the identification of the hydrogen-powered PEMFC as the best clean power system to guarantee for this specific case study a suitable retrofitting of the vessel that could guarantee a zero-emission journey

The number of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) in circulation has undergone a significant increase in recent years. This trend is foreseen to be stronger in the near future. In correlation with the FCEVs market increase the hydrogen delivery infrastructure must be developed. With this aim many countries have announced ambitious projects. For example Spain has the objective of increasing the number of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRS) with public access from three units in operation currently to about 150 by 2030. HRSs are complex systems with high variability in terms of layout design size of components operational strategy hydrogen generation method or hydrogen generation location. This paper is focused on on-site HRS with electrolysis-based hydrogen production which provides interesting advantages when renewable energy is utilized compared to off-site hydrogen production despite their complexity. To optimize HRS design and operation a simulation model must be implemented. This paper describes a generic on-site HRS with electrolysis-based hydrogen production a cascaded multi-tank storage system with multiple compressors renewable energy sources and multiple types of dispensing formats. A modelling approach of the layout is presented and tested with real-based parameters of an HRS currently under development which is capable of producing 11.34 kg/h of green H2 with irradiation at 1000 W/m2. For the operation an operational strategy is proposed. The modelled system is tested through several simulations. A sensitivity analysis of the effects of hydrogen demand and day-ahead hydrogen production objective on emissions demand satisfaction and variable costs is performed. Simulation results show how the operational strategy has achieved service up to 310 FCEVs refuelling events of heavy duty and light duty FCEVs bringing the total H2 sold up to almost 7200 H2kg in one month of winter. Additionally considering variable costs of the energy from the utility grid the model shows a profit in the range of 21–50 k€ for a daily demand of 60 H2kg/day and 100 H2kg/day respectively. In terms of emissions a year simulation with 60 H2kg/day of demand shows specific emissions in the production of H2 in Spain of 6.26 kgCO2eq/H2kg which represents a greenhouse gas emission intensity of 52.26 kgCO2eq/H2MJ.

The shipping sector is facing increasing pressure to implement clean fuels and drivetrains. Especially hydrogen fuel cell drivetrains seem attractive. Although several studies have been conducted to assess the carbon footprint of hydrogen and its application in ships their results remain hard to interpret and compare. Namely it is necessary to include a variety of drivetrain solutions and different studies are based on various assumptions and are expressed in other units. This paper addresses this problem by offering a three-step meta-review of life cycle assessment studies. First a literature review was conducted. Second results from the literature were harmonized to make the different analyses comparable serving cross-examination. The entire life cycle of both the fuels and drivetrains were included. The results showed that the dominant impact was fuel use and related fuel production. And finally life-cycle hot spots have been identified by looking at the effect of specific configurations in more detail. Hydrogen production by electrolysis powered by wind has the most negligible impact. For this ultra-low carbon pathway the modes of hydrogen transport and the use of specific materials and components become relevant.

In the context of the increasingly strict pollutant emission regulations and carbon emission reduction targets proposed by the International Maritime Organization the shipping industry is seeking new types of marine power plants with the advantages of high efficiency and low emissions. Among the possible alternatives the fuel cell is considered to be the most practical technology as it provides an efficient means to generate electricity with low pollutant emissions and carbon emissions. Very few comprehensive reviews focus on the maritime applications of the fuel cell. Thus news reports and literature on the maritime applications of the fuel cell in the past sixty years were collected and the industrial development status and prospects of the marine fuel cell were summarized as follows. Some countries in Europe North America and Asia have invested heavily in researching and developing the marine fuel cell and a series of research projects have achieved concrete results such as the industrialized marine fuel cell system or practical demonstration applications. At present the worldwide research of the marine fuel cell focuses more on the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). However the power demand of the marine fuel cell in the future will show steady growth and thus the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) with the advantages of higher power and fuel diversity will be the mainstream in the next research stage. Although some challenges exist the SOFC can certainly lead the upgrading and updating of the marine power system with the cooperative efforts of the whole world.

This paper introduces a Techno-Economic Assessment (TEA) on present and future scenarios of different energy storage technologies comprising hydrogen and batteries: Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) Hydrogen Energy Storage System (H2ESS) and Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS). These three configurations were assessed for different time horizons: 2019 2022 and 2030 under both on-grid and off-grid conditions. For 2030 a sensitivity analysis under different energy scenarios was performed covering other trends in on-grid electric consumption and prices CO2 taxation and the evolution of hydrogen technology prices from 2019 until 2030. The selected case study is the Research Park Zellik (RPZ) a CO2- neutral sustainable Local Energy Community (LEC) in Zellik Belgium. The software HOMER (Hybrid Optimisation Model for Electric Renewable) has been selected to design model and optimise the defined case study. The results showed that BESS was the most competitive when the electric grid was available among the three possible storage options. Additionally HESS was overall more competitive than H2ESS-only regardless of the grid connection mode. Finally as per HESS hydrogen was proved to play a complementary role when combined with batteries enhancing the flexibility of the microgrid and enabling deeper decarbonisation by reducing the electricity bought from the grid increasing renewable energy production and balancing toward an island operating mode.

A proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is known as one of the most promising energy sources for electric vehicles. A hydrogen system is required to provide hydrogen to the stack in time to meet the flow and pressure requirements according to the power requirements. In this study a 1-D model of a hydrogen system including the fuel cell stack was established. Two modes one with and one without a proportion integration differentiation (PID) control strategy were applied to analyze the pressure characteristics and performance of the PEMFC. The results showed that the established model could be well verified with experimental data. The anode pressure fluctuation with a PID control strategy was more stable which reduced the damage to the fuel cell stack caused by sudden changes of anode pressure. In addition the performance of the stack with the PID control mode was slightly improved. There was an inflection point for hydrogen utilization; the hydrogen utilization rate was higher under the mode without PID control when the current density was greater than 0.4 A/cm2 . What is more a hierarchical control strategy was proposed which made the pressure difference between the anode and cathode meet the stack working requirements and more importantly maintained the high hydrogen utilization of the hydrogen system.

In vertically integrated energy systems integration frequently entails operational gains that must be traded off against the requisite cost of capacity investments. In the context of the model analyzed in this study the operational gains are subject to inherent volatility in both the price and the output of the intermediate product transferred within the vertically integrated structure. Our model framework provides necessary and sufficient conditions for the value (NPV) of an integrated system to exceed the sum of two optimized subsystems on their own. We then calibrate the model in Germany and Texas for systems that combine wind energy with Power-to-Gas (PtG) facilities that produce hydrogen. Depending on the prices for hydrogen in different market segments we find that a synergistic investment value emerges in some settings. In the context of Texas for instance neither electricity generation from wind power nor hydrogen production from PtG is profitable on its own in the current market environment. Yet provided both subsystems are sized optimally in relative terms the attendant operational gains from vertical integration more than compensate for the stand-alone losses of the two subsystems.

Extreme disasters have become increasingly common in recent years and pose significant dangers to the integrated energy system’s secure and dependable energy supply. As a vital part of an integrated energy system the energy storage system can help with emergency rescue and recovery during major disasters. In addition it can improve energy utilization rates and regulate fluctuations in renewable energy under normal conditions. In this study the sizing scheme of multienergy storage equipment in the electric–thermal–hydrogen integrated energy system is optimized; economic optimization in the regular operating scenario and resilience enhancement in extreme disaster scenarios are also considered. A refined model of multi-energy storage is constructed and a two-layer capacity configuration optimization model is proposed. This model is further enhanced by the integration of a Markov two-state fault transmission model which simulates equipment defects and improves system resilience. The optimization process is solved using the tabu chaotic quantum particle swarm optimization (TCQPSO) algorithm to provide reliable and accurate optimization results. The results indicate that addressing severe disaster situations in a capacity configuration fully leverages the reserve energy function of energy storage and enhances system resilience while maintaining economic efficiency; furthermore adjusting the load loss penalty coefficients offers a more targeted approach to the balancing of the system economy and resilience. Thus new algorithmic choices and planning strategies for future research on enhancing the resilience of integrated energy systems under extreme disaster scenarios are provided.

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) can be used during idle times to convert hydrogen into electricity in a decentralised manner thus ensuring a completely renewable energy supply. In addition to the electric power waste heat is generated in the fuel cell stack that can also be used. This paper investigates how the energy demand of a compiled German neighbourhood can be met by FCEVs and identifies potential technical problems. For this purpose energy scenarios are modelled in the Open Energy System Modelling Framework (oemof). An optimisation simulation finds the most energetically favourable solution for the 10-day period under consideration. Up to 49% of the heat demand for heating and hot water can be covered directly by the waste heat of the FCEVs. As the number of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) to be charged increases so does this share. 5 of the 252 residents must permanently provide an FCEV to supply the neighbourhood. The amount of hydrogen required was identified as a problem. If the vehicles cannot be supplied with hydrogen in a stationary way 15 times more vehicles are needed than required in terms of performance due to the energy demand.

Fuel cell electric vehicles convert chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity to power their motor. Since cars are used for transport only during a small part of the time energy stored in the on-board hydrogen tanks of fuel cell vehicles can be used to provide power when cars are parked. In this paper we present a community microgrid with photovoltaic systems wind turbines and fuel cell electric vehicles that are used to provide vehicle-to-grid power when renewable power generation is scarce. Excess renewable power generation is used to produce hydrogen which is stored in a refilling station. A central control system is designed to operate the system in such a way that the operational costs are minimized. To this end a hybrid model for the system is derived in which both the characteristics of the fuel cell vehicles and their traveling schedules are considered. The operational costs of the system are formulated considering the presence of uncertainty in the prediction of the load and renewable energy generation. A robust minmax model predictive control scheme is developed and finally a case study illustrates the performance of the designed system.

Nowadays decarbonization of energy economy is a topical theme and several pathways are under discussion. Gaseous fuels will play a primary role during this transition and the production of renewable or low carbon-impact gaseous fuels is necessary to deal with this challenge. Decarbonization will be sustained by an increasing share of renewables which production intermittency can be critical for the energy system. Renewable hydrogen generation is a viable solution since this energy vector can be produced from electricity with a fast response and injected in the existing natural gas infrastructures granting storage capacity and easy transport. Parallelly to the renewable-based energy production fossil-based energy can be exploited with a low carbon impact using methane from reservoirs to produce hydrogen capturing CO2. The mentioned scenarios will lead to hydrogen enrichment of natural gas which impact on the infrastructures is being actively studied. The effect on end-user devices instead is poorly analysed but is fundamental to be assessed. This paper highlights the impact on the widely used premixed condensing boilers which will be fired with hydrogen enriched natural gas in the near future and the changes required to components.

Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles have attracted a large amount of attention in recent years owing to their advantages of zero emissions high efficiency and low noise. To improve the fuel economy and system durability of vehicles this paper proposes an energy management strategy optimization method for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles based on dynamic programming. Rule-based and dynamic-programming-based strategies are developed based on building a fuel cell/battery hybrid system model. The rule-based strategy is improved with a power distribution scheme of dynamic programming strategy to improve the fuel economy of the vehicle. Furthermore a limit on the rate of change of the output power of the fuel cell system is added to the rule-based strategy to avoid large load changes to improve the durability of the fuel cell. The simulation results show that the equivalent 100 km hydrogen consumption of the strategy based on the dynamic programming optimization rules is reduced by 6.46% compared with that before the improvement and by limiting the rate of change of the output power of the fuel cell system the times of large load changes are reduced. Therefore the strategy based on the dynamic programming optimization rules effectively improves the fuel economy and system durability of vehicles.

Although recent studies have shown the possibility of running ‘standard’ spark-ignition engines with 6 pure ammonia the operating range remains limited mainly due to the unfavorable characteristics of 7 ammonia for premixed combustion and often requires the addition of a complementary fuel such as H2 8 to extend it. As the best way to add H2 is to crack ammonia directly on-board this paper focuses on 9 the impact of the upstream cracking level of ammonia on the performance and emissions of a single 10 cylinder spark ignition engine. Experiments were performed over several equivalence ratios 11 dissociation rates and load conditions. It is confirmed that only a slight rate of ammonia dissociation 12 (10%) upstream of the combustion considerably enhances the engine's operating range thanks to a 13 better combustion stability. In terms of pollutant emissions the partial dissociation of ammonia 14 especially for slightly lean mixtures induces a very clear trade-off between high NOx and high 15 unburned ammonia level for high and low ammonia dissociation rates respectively. Therefore 16 cracking NH3 does not only improve the operating range of ammonia-fueled spark ignition engines but 17 can also help to reduce NH3. However to reach the same engine output work higher ammonia fuel 18 consumption will be necessary since the global system efficiency is lower using fuel dissociation. In 19 addition the global warming effect is increased with dissociation level since a higher level of N2O is 20 generated by the hydrogen contribution.

Though Power-to-X pathways primarily Power-to-Liquids attract interest as solutions for decarbonising parts of the transport sector that are not suitable for electrification the regulatory framework until recently slowed down their implementation. This paper examines the updates in the main aspects of the legal framework in the European Union from 2019 to the beginning of 2022 related to Power-to-X: support schemes specific targets and potential barriers. The results show increasing interest and market entrance of electrolysis and push from the different actors and regulatory parties to establish solutions that will enable faster upscaling. However it is visible from the National Energy and Climate Plans and hydrogen strategies that the most emphasis is still on hydrogen as an end fuel for personal vehicles or power-to-gas. On the other hand few countries have implemented legal frameworks facilitating diverse PtX pathways without focusing solely on hydrogen. Nevertheless revisions of RED II have finally set up specific targets for electrofuels and Fit for 55 has introduced new actions supporting electrofuels in aviation and marine transport.

In order to decarbonize the rail industry the development of innovative locomotives with the ability to use multiple energy sources constituting hybrid powertrains plays a central role in transitioning from conventional diesel trains. In this paper four configurations based on suitable combinations of fuel cells and/or batteries are designed to replace or supplement a diesel/overhead line powertrain on a real passenger train (the Hitachi Blues) tested on an existing regional track the Catanzaro Lido–Reggio Calabria line (Italy) managed by Trenitalia SpA. (Italy). The configurations (namely battery–electrified line full-battery fuel cell–battery–electrified line and fuel cell–battery) are first sized with the intention of completing a round trip then integrated on board with diesel engine replacement in mind and finally occupy a portion of the passenger area within two locomotives. The achieved performance is thoroughly examined in terms of fuel cell efficiency (greater than 47%) hydrogen consumption (less than 72 kg) braking energy recovery (approximately 300 kWh) and battery interval SOC.

According to the specific requirements of railway engineering a techno-economic comparison for onboard hydrogen storage technologies is conducted to discuss their feasibility and potentials for hydrogen-powered hybrid trains. Physical storage methods including compressed hydrogen (CH2 ) liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) and cryo-compressed hydrogen (CcH2 ) and material-based (chemical) storage methods such as ammonia liquid organic hydrogen carriages (LOHCs) and metal hydrides are carefully discussed in terms of their operational conditions energy capacity and economic costs. CH2 technology is the most mature now but its storage density cannot reach the final target which is the same problem for intermetallic compounds. In contrast LH2 CcH2 and complex hydrides are attractive for their high storage density. Nevertheless the harsh working conditions of complex hydrides hinder their vehicular application. Ammonia has advantages in energy capacity utilisation efficiency and cost especially being directly utilised by fuel cells. LOHCs are now considered as a potential candidate for hydrogen transport. Simplifying the dehydrogenation process is the important prerequisite for its vehicular employment. Recently increasing novel hydrogen-powered trains based on different hydrogen storage routes are being tested and optimised across the world. It can be forecasted that hydrogen energy will be a significant booster to railway decarbonisation.

In this paper a new isolated hybrid system is simulated and analyzed to obtain the optimal sizing and meet the electricity demand with cost improvement for servicing a small remote area with a peak load of 420 kW. The major configuration of this hybrid system is Photovoltaic (PV) modules Biomass gasifier (BG) Electrolyzer units Hydrogen Tank units (HT) and Fuel Cell (FC) system. A recent optimization algorithm namely Mayfly Optimization Algorithm (MOA) is utilized to ensure that all load demand is met at the lowest energy cost (EC) and minimize the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the proposed system. The MOA is selected as it collects the main merits of swarm intelligence and evolutionary algorithms; hence it has good convergence characteristics. To ensure the superiority of the selected MOA the obtained results are compared with other well-known optimization algorithms namely Sooty Tern Optimization Algorithm (STOA) Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA) and Sine Cosine Algorithm (SCA). The results reveal that the suggested MOA achieves the best system design achieving a stable convergence characteristic after 44 iterations. MOA yielded the best EC with 0.2106533 $/kWh the net present cost (NPC) with 6170134 $ the loss of power supply probability (LPSP) with 0.05993% and GHG with 792.534 t/y.

Missions targeting the extreme and rugged environments on the moon and Mars have rich potential for a high science return although several risks exist in performing these exploration missions. The current generation of robots is unable to access these high-priority targets. We propose using teams of small hopping and rolling robots called SphereX that are several kilograms in mass and can be carried by a large rover or lander and tactically deployed for exploring these extreme environments. Considering that the importance of minimizing the mass and volume of these robot platforms translates into significant mission-cost savings we focus on the optimization of an integrated power and propulsion system for SphereX. Hydrogen is used as fuel for its high energy and it is stored in the form of lithium hydride and oxygen in the form of lithium perchlorate. The system design undergoes optimization using Genetic Algorithms integrated with gradient-based search techniques to find optimal solutions for a mission. Our power and propulsion system as we show in this paper is enabling because the robots can travel long distances to perform science exploration by accessing targets not possible with conventional systems. Our work includes finding the optimal mass and volume of SphereX such that it can meet end-to-end mission requirements.

To address the negative influence caused by power randomness of distributed PV output on energy system’s economic operation in this work an economic operation strategy considering the uncertainty features of PV output has been designed and applied on an integrated hydrogen energy system. First the thermal system operation model and the thermoelectric output control model are precisely built for the integrated hydrogen energy system and the hydrogen-based fuel cell respectively. Then referring to the PV output prediction data the uncertainty of light intensity variation is analyzed to correct the PV output prediction curve. Finally a cost–benefit model for the optimal economic operation of the integrated hydrogen energy system including PV hydrogen fuel cell and cogeneration unit is designed with an objective function of achieving an optimal economic operation of the multi-energy coupling devices. The simulation tests validate that considering the influence of PV output uncertainty on hydrogen fuel cell output can make the system operation more reasonable which ensures the economic and reliable operation of hydrogen energy systems.

With the combustor burning hydrogen as well as the strongly coupled fuel and cooling system the configuration of a hydrogen-fueled aero engine is more complex than that of a conventional aero engine. The performance and especially the dynamic behavior of a hydrogen-fueled aero engine need to be fully understood for engine system design and optimization. In this paper both the transient modeling and performance analysis of hydrogen-fueled engines are presented. Firstly the models specific to the hydrogen-fueled engine components and systems including the hydrogen-fueled combustor the steam injection system a simplified model for a quick NOx emission assessment and the heat exchangers are developed and then integrated to a conventional engine models. The simulations with both Simulink and Speedgoat-based hardware in the loop system are carried out. Secondly the performance analysis is performed for a typical turbofan engine configuration CF6 and for the two hydrogen-fueled engine configurations ENABLEH2 and HySIITE which are currently under research and development by the European Union and Pratt & Whitney respectively. At last the simulation results demonstrate that the developed transient models can effectively reflect the characteristics of hydrogen burning heat exchanging and NOx emission for hydrogen-fueled engines. In most cases the hydrogen-fueled engines show lower specific fuel consumption lower turbine entry temperature and less NOx emissions compared with conventional engines. For example at max thrust state the advanced hydrogen-fueled engine can reduce the parameters mentioned above by about 68.5% 3.7% and 12.7% respectively (a mean value of two configurations).

The presented article aims to design an educational test bench setup for smart grids and renewable energies with multiple features and techniques used in a microgrid. The test bench is designed for students laboratory engineers and researchers which enables electrical microgrid system studies and testing of new advanced control algorithms to optimize the energy efficiency. The idea behind this work is to design hybrid energy sources such as wind power solar photovoltaic power hydroelectric power hydrogen energy and different types of energy storage systems such as batteries pumped storage and flywheel integrating different electrical loads. The user can visualize the state of the components of each emulated scenario through an open-source software that interacts and communicates using OPC Unified Architecture protocol. The researchers can test and validate new solutions to manage the energy behavior in the grid using machine learning and optimization algorithms integrated in the software in form of blocks that can be modified and improved and then simulate the results. A model-based system of engineering is provided which describes the different requirements and case studies of the designed test bench respecting the open-source software and the frugal innovation features in which there is use of low-cost hardware and open-source software. The users obtain the opportunity to add new sources and new loads change software platforms and communicate with other simulators and equipment. The students can understand the different features of smart grids such as defect classification energy forecasting energy optimization and basics of production transmission and consumption.

Electrical energy storage technologies for stationary applications are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to pumped hydroelectric storage compressed air energy storage battery flow battery fuel cell solar fuel superconducting magnetic energy storage flywheel capacitor/supercapacitor and thermal energy storage. Comparison is made among these technologies in terms of technical characteristics applications and deployment status.

One of the many technical benefits of green diesel (GD) is its ability to be oxygenated lubricated and adopted in diesel engines without requiring hardware modifications. The inability of GD to reduce exhaust tail emissions and its poor performance in endurance tests have spurred researchers to look for new clean fuels. Improving gasohol/hydrogen blend (GHB) spark ignition is critical to its long-term viability and accurate demand forecasting. This study employed the Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to identify the appropriate GHB and engine speed (ES) for efficient performance and lower emissions in a GHB engine. The RSM model output variables included brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) brake thermal efficiency (BTE) hydrocarbon (HC) carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) while the input variables included ES and GHB. The Analysis of Variance-assisted RSM revealed that the most affected responses are BSFC and BTE. Based on the desirability criteria the best values for the GHB and the ES were determined to be 20% and 1500 rpm respectively while the validation between experimental and numerical results was calculated to be 4.82. As a result the RSM is a useful tool for predicting the optimal GHB and ES for optimizing spark-ignition engine characteristics and ensuring benign environment.

Extensive decarbonisation efforts result in major changes in energy demand for the extractive industry. In 2021 the extraction and primary processing of metals and minerals accounted for 4.5 Gt of CO2 eq. per year. The aluminium industry was responsible for 1.1 Gt CO2 eq. direct and indirect emissions. To reach the European milestone of zero emissions by 2050 a reduction of 3% annually is essential. To this end the industry needs to take a turn towards less impactful production practices coupling secondary production with green energy sources. The present work aims to comprehensively compare the lifecycle energy consumption and environmental performance of a secondary aluminium smelter employing alternative thermal and electricity sources. In this frame a comparative analysis of the environmental impact of different thermal energy sources namely natural gas light fuel oil liquified petroleum gas hydrogen and electricity for a secondary aluminium smelter is presented. The results show that H2 produced by renewables (green H2 ) is the most environmentally beneficial option accounting for −84.156 kg CO2 eq. By producing thermal energy as well as electricity on site H2 technologies also serve as a decentralized power station for green energy production. These technologies account for a reduction of 118% compared to conventionally used natural gas. The results offer a comprehensive overview to aid decision-makers in comparing environmental impacts caused by different energy sources.

Hydrogen is regarded as a flexible energy carrier with multiple applications across several sectors. For instance it can be used in industrial processes transports heating and electrical power generation. Green hydrogen produced from renewable sources can have a crucial role in the pathway towards global decarbonization. However the success of green hydrogen production ultimately depends on its economic sustainability. In this context this work evaluates the economic performance of a hydrogen power plant participating in the electricity market and supplying multiple hydrogen consumers. The analysis includes technical and economical details of the main components of the hydrogen power plant. Its operation is simulated using six different scenarios which admit the production of either grey or green hydrogen. The scenarios used for the analysis include data from the Iberian electricity market for the Portuguese hub. An important conclusion is that the combination of multiple services in a hydrogen power plant has a positive effect on its economic performance. However as of today consumers who would wish to acquire green hydrogen would have to be willing to pay higher prices to compensate for the shorter periods of operation of hydrogen power plants and for their intrinsic losses. Nonetheless an increase in green hydrogen demand based on a greater environmental awareness can lead to the need to not only build more of these facilities but also to integrate more services into them. This could promote the investment in hydrogen-related technologies and result in changes in capital and operating costs of key components of these plants which are necessary to bring down production costs.

Several challenges have emerged due to the increasing deterioration of urban mobility and its severe impacts on the environment and human health. Primary dependence on internal combustion engines that use petrol or diesel has led to poor air quality time losses noise traffic jams and further environmental pollution. Hence the transitions to using rail and or seaway-based public transportation cleaner fuels and electric vehicles are some of the ultimate goals of urban and national decision-makers. However battery natural gas hybrid and fuel cell vehicles require charging stations to be readily available with a sustainable energy supply within urban regions in different residential and business neighborhoods. This study aims to provide an updated and critical review of the concept and recent examples of urban mobility and transportation modes. It also highlights the adverse impacts of several air pollutants emitted from internal combustion engine vehicles. It also aims to shed light on several possible systems that integrate the electric vehicle stations with renewable energy sources. It was found that using certain components within the integrated system and connecting the charging stations with a grid can possibly provide an uninterrupted power supply to electric vehicles leading to less pollution which would encourage users to use more clean vehicles. In addition the environmental impact assessments as well as several implementation challenges are discussed. To this end the main implementation issues related to consumer incentives infrastructure and recommendations are also reported.

Hydrogen represents a versatile energy carrier with net zero end use emissions. Power-to-Liquid (PtL) includes the combination of hydrogen with CO2 to produce liquid fuels and satisfy mostly transport demand. This study assesses the role of these pathways across scenarios that achieve 80–95% CO₂ reduction by 2050 (vs. 1990) using the JRC-EU-TIMES model. The gaps in the literature covered in this study include a broader spatial coverage (EU28+) and hydrogen use in all sectors (beyond transport). The large uncertainty in the possible evolution of the energy system has been tackled with an extensive sensitivity analysis. 15 parameters were varied to produce more than 50 scenarios. Results indicate that parameters with the largest influence are the CO₂ target the availability of CO₂ underground storage and the biomass potential.

Hydrogen demand increases from 7 mtpa today to 20–120 mtpa (2.4–14.4 EJ/yr) mainly used for PtL (up to 70 mtpa) transport (up to 40 mtpa) and industry (25 mtpa). Only when CO₂ storage was not possible due to a political ban or social acceptance issues was electrolysis the main hydrogen production route (90% share) and CO₂ use for PtL became attractive. Otherwise hydrogen was produced through gas reforming with CO₂ capture and the preferred CO₂ sink was underground. Hydrogen and PtL contribute to energy security and independence allowing to reduce energy related import cost from 420 bln€/yr today to 350 or 50 bln€/yr for 95% CO₂ reduction with and without CO₂ storage. Development of electrolyzers fuel cells and fuel synthesis should continue to ensure these technologies are ready when needed. Results from this study should be complemented with studies with higher spatial and temporal resolution. Scenarios with global trading of hydrogen and potential import to the EU were not included.

In this third episode Steffan Eldred and Hannah Abson from Innovate UK KTN are exploring the scale of the opportunity that hydrogen and aviation present alongside their special guest Katy Milne Head of Industrial Strategy at FlyZero.

The podcast can be found on their website

Driven by a small number of niche markets and several decades of application research fuel cell systems (FCS) are gradually reaching maturity to the point where many players are questioning the interest and intensity of its deployment in the transport sector in general. This article aims to shed light on this debate from the road transport perspective. It focuses on the description of the fuel cell vehicle (FCV) in order to understand its assets limitations and current paths of progress. These vehicles are basically hybrid systems combining a fuel cell and a lithium-ion battery and different architectures are emerging among manufacturers who adopt very different levels of hybridization. The main opportunity of Fuel Cell Vehicles is clearly their design versatility based on the decoupling of the choice of the number of Fuel Cell modules and hydrogen tanks. This enables manufacturers to meet various specifications using standard products. Upcoming developments will be in line with the crucial advantage of Fuel Cell Vehicles: intensive use in terms of driving range and load capacity. Over the next few decades long-distance heavy-duty vehicles and fleets of taxis or delivery vehicles will develop based on range extender or mild hybrid architectures and enable the hydrogen sector to mature the technology from niche markets to a large-scale market.

On this weeks episode the team are talking all things hydrogen with Jacob Krogsgaard the CEO of Everfuel a leading supplier of green hydrogen for mobility and industry in Europe. Since its establishment by Nel and a Consortium of parties and investors Everfuel has become a market leader in establishing green hydrogen solutions for mobility in Europe and has recently expanded into areas such as power-to-gas as well. The team catch up with Jacob on Everfuels business model the establishment of the H2Bus Consortium Jacob’s views on how the market for green hydrogen is evolving in Europe and where he sees the greatest early potential for scaling.…..All this and more on the show!

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In the second episode of EAH's Season 3 Patrick Andrew and Chris sit down with Maria Fennis CEO of HyET. HyET Hydrogen is a leading SME in the field of electrochemical hydrogen compression founded in 2008. HyET has introduced the first commercially viable Electrochemical Hydrogen Compressor (EHPC) the HCS 100 in 2017. HyET enters partnerships with key stakeholders to develop products with a focus on application. Maria is a leading voice in the compression arena and it is a pleasure to have her on the show!

The podcast can be found on their website

We analyze the use of hydrogen as a fuel for the automotive industry with the aim of decarbonizing the economy. Hydrogen is a suitable option for avoiding pollutant gas emissions developing environmentally friendly technologies replacing fossil fuels with clean renewable energies and complying with the Paris Agreement and Glasgow resolutions. In this sense renewable energies such as wind solar photovoltaic geothermal biomass etc. can be used to produce the necessary hydrogen to power vehicles. In this way the entire process from hydrogen production to its consumption as fuel will be 100% clean. If we are to meet future energy demands it is necessary to forecast the amount of hydrogen needed taking into account the facilities currently available and new ones that will be required for its generation storage and distribution. This paper presents a process for optimizing hydrogen production for the automotive industry that considers the amount of hydrogen needed the type of facilities from which it will be produced how the different sources of production are to be combined to achieve a competitive product and the potential environmental impacts of each energy source. It can serve as a frame of reference for the various actors in the hydropower and automotive industries so that more efficient designs can be planned for the gradual introduction of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs). The methodology implemented in this paper sets an optimization problem for minimizing energy production costs and reducing environmental impacts according to the source of energy production. The EU framework with respect to the decarbonization of the economy the percentages of the different types of energy sources used and the non-polluting vehicle fleet in the automotive sector will be considered.

Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) are considered for use in renewable residential DC microgrids. This architecture is shown as a technically feasible solution to deal with the stochasticity of renewable energy sources however the complexity of its design and management increases inexorably. To address this problem this paper proposes a fuzzy logic-based energy management system (EMS) for use in grid-connected residential DC microgrids with HESS. It is a hydrogen-based HESS composed of batteries and multi-stack fuel cell system. The proposed EMS is based on a multivariable and multistage fuzzy logic controller specially designed to cope with a multi-objective problem whose solution increases the microgrid performance in terms of efficiency operating costs and lifespan of the HESS. The proposed EMS considers the power balance in the microgrid and its prediction the performance and degradation of its subsystems as well as the main electricity grid costs. This article assesses the performance of the developed EMS with respect to three reference EMSs present in the literature: the widely used dual-band hysteresis and two based on multi-objective model predictive control. Simulation results show an increase in the performance of the microgrid from a technical and economic point of view.

The concept of sector coupling has been gaining increased momentum in political discourses during 18 the past few years but it has only recently received the attention of international academics. The 19 private sector is particularly relevant to foster sector coupling through entrepreneurial action – 20 specifically innovative business models for more sustainable technologies are needed to promote a 21 transition towards more sustainability. So far however the literature on business models from a 22 sector coupling perspective is scarce yet strongly emerging. To address the identified research gaps 23 and enhance the current knowledge on the emerging hydrogen vehicle industry and sector coupling 24 this study adopts a qualitative and exploratory research approach and builds on information gained 25 in 103 semi-structured interviews to discuss emerging business models in Germany. In particular 33 26 business cases have been analyzed. Anchoring business model theory to the concept of sector 27 coupling this study identifies 12 business model archetypes in the emerging hydrogen vehicle 28 industry and its value chain. It can be shown that while the market is still emerging and the market 29 players are not defined and are evolving companies are currently engaged in finding their position 30 along the value chain fostering vertical integration and promoting cooperation between the 31 different sectors. While this study is relevant for both the academia and the industry it is particularly 2 32 interesting for policy makers shaping the future of sustainable development specifically considering 33 integrated energy systems.

This study investigates the production of green hydrogen for use in oil refining as specified in the draft of European union delegated act published in May 2022. The European union plans to set strict requirements of additionality and reporting regarding the criteria of renewable electricity used in hydrogen production. Alkaline electrolyzer proton exchange membrane electrolyzer and solid oxide electrolyzer are evaluated in various scenarios supplied by wind power: power purchase agreement-based scenarios and wind power investment-based scenarios. In power purchase agreement-based scenarios baseload and pay as produced power purchase agreements (with and without electricity storage) are assessed. According to results the use of 600 MW compressed air energy storage could reduce the dependency on the grid by 7% but increase the cost of green hydrogen significantly. Investment-based scenarios produce green hydrogen with a lower operation cost but higher break-even price compared to power purchase agreement-based scenarios. The cheapest green hydrogen can be achieved by alkaline electrolyzer with baseload power purchase agreement. Direct ownership of wind power is outside the operation of oil refining industry thus power purchase agreements contracting is more likely to realize.

Transformation of road transport sector through replacing of internal combustion vehicles with zero-emission technologies is among key challenges to achievement of climate neutrality by 2050. In a constantly developing economy the demand for transport services increases to ensure continuity in the supply chain and passenger mobility. Deployment of electric technologies in the road transport sector involves both businesses and households its pace depends on the technological development of zero-emission vehicles presence of necessary infrastructure and regulations on emission standards for new vehicles entering the market. Thus this study attempts to estimate how long combustion vehicles will be in use and what the state of the fleet will be in 2050. For obtainment of results the TR3E partial equilibrium model was used. The study simulates the future fleet structure in passenger and freight transport. The results obtained for Poland for the climate neutrality (NEU) scenario show that in 2050 the share of vehicles using fossil fuels will be ca. 30% in both road passenger and freight transport. The consequence of shifts in the structure of the fleet is the reduction of CO2 emissions ca. 80% by 2050 and increase of the transport demand for electricity and hydrogen.

The use of hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels for vehicle propulsion is already a reality. However due to its physical characteristics storage is still a challenge. There is an innovative way presented in this study to store hydrogen in conventional vehicles propelled by spark-ignition reciprocating engines and fuel cells using hydrogen as fuel; the storage of hydrogen will be at high pressure within small spheres randomly packed in a tank like the conventional tank of fuel used nowadays in current vehicles. Therefore the main purpose of the present study is to assess the performance of this storage system and compare it to others already applied by car manufacturers in their cars. In order to evaluate the performance of this storage system some parameters were taken into account: The energy stored by volume and stored by weight hydrogen leakage and compliance with current standards. This system is safer than conventional storage systems since hydrogen is stored inside small spheres containing small amounts of hydrogen. Besides its gravimetric energy density (GED) is threefold and the volumetric energy density (VED) is about half when compared with homologous values for conventional systems and both exceed the targets set by the U.S. Department of Energy. Regarding the leakage of hydrogen it complies with the European Standards provided a suitable choice of materials and dimensions is made.

Europe’s low-carbon energy policy favors a greater use of fuel cells and technologies based on hydrogen used as a fuel. Hydrogen delivered at the hydrogen refueling station must be compliant with requirements stated in different standards. Currently the quality control process is performed by offline analysis of the hydrogen fuel. It is however beneficial to continuously monitor at least some of the contaminants onsite using chemical sensors. For hydrogen quality control with regard to contaminants high sensitivity integration parameters and low cost are the most important requirements. In this study we have reviewed the existing sensor technologies to detect contaminants in hydrogen then discussed the implementation of sensors at a hydrogen refueling stations described the state-of-art in protocols to perform assessment of these sensor technologies and finally identified the gaps and needs in these areas. It was clear that sensors are not yet commercially available for all gaseous contaminants mentioned in ISO14687:2019. The development of standardized testing protocols is required to go hand in hand with the development of chemical sensors for this application following a similar approach to the one undertaken for air sensors.

The upcoming stricter limitations on both pollutant and greenhouse gases emissions represent a challenge for the shipping sector. The entire ship design process requires an approach to innovation with a particular focus on both the fuel choice and the power generation system. Among the possible alternatives natural gas and hydrogen based propulsion systems seem to be promising in the medium and long term. Nonetheless natural gas and hydrogen storage still represents a problem in terms of cargo volume reduction. This paper focuses on the storage issue considering compressed gases and presents an innovative solution which has been developed in the European project GASVESSEL® that allows to store gaseous fuels with an energy density higher than conventional intermediate pressure containment systems. After a general overview of natural gas and hydrogen as fuels for shipping a case study of a small Roll-on/Rolloff passenger ferry retrofit is proposed. The study analyses the technical feasibility of the installation of a hybrid power system with batteries and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells fuelled by hydrogen. In particular a process simulation model has been implemented to assess the quantity of hydrogen that can be stored on board taking into account boundary conditions such as filling time on shore storage capacity and cylinder wall temperature. The simulation results show that if the fuel cells system is run continuously at steady state to cover the energy need for one day of operation 140 kg of hydrogen are required. Using the innovative pressure cylinder at a storage pressure of 300 bar the volume required by the storage system assessed on the basis of the containment system outer dimensions is resulted to be 15.2 m3 with a weight of 2.5 ton. Even if the innovative type of pressure cylinder allows to reach an energy density higher than conventional intermediate pressure cylinders the volume necessary to store a quantity of energy typical for the shipping sector is many times higher than that required by conventional fuels today used. The analysis points out as expected that the filling process is critical to maximize the stored hydrogen mass and that it is critical to measure the temperature of the cylinder walls in order not to exceed the material limits. Nevertheless for specific application such as the one considered in the paper the introduction of gaseous hydrogen as fuel can be considered for implementing zero local emission propulsion system in the medium term.

The year 2014 marked hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) first becoming commercially available in California where significant investments are being made to promote the adoption of alternative transportation fuels. A refueling infrastructure network that guarantees adequate coverage and expands in line with vehicle sales is required for FCEVs to be successfully adopted by private customers. In this paper we provide an overview of modelling methodologies used to project hydrogen refueling infrastructure requirements to support FCEV adoption and we describe in detail the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s scenario evaluation and regionalization analysis (SERA) model. As an example we use SERA to explore two alternative scenarios of FCEV adoption: one in which FCEV deployment is limited to California and several major cities in the United States; and one in which FCEVs reach widespread adoption becoming a major option as passenger vehicles across the entire country. Such scenarios can provide guidance and insights for efforts required to deploy the infrastructure supporting transition toward different levels of hydrogen use as a transportation fuel for passenger vehicles in the United States.

Using electricity for heating can contribute to decarbonization and provide flexibility to integrate variable renewable energy. We analyze the case of electric storage heaters in German 2030 scenarios with an open-source electricity sector model. We find that flexible electric heaters generally increase the use of generation technologies with low variable costs which are not necessarily renewables. Yet making customary night-time storage heaters temporally more flexible offers only moderate benefits because renewable availability during daytime is limited in the heating season. Respective investment costs accordingly have to be very low in order to realize total system cost benefits. As storage heaters feature only short-term heat storage they also cannot reconcile the seasonal mismatch of heat demand in winter and high renewable availability in summer. Future research should evaluate the benefits of longer-term heat storage.

To become sustainable the production of electricity has been oriented towards the adoption of local and renewable sources. Distributed electric and thermal energy generation is more suitable to avoid any possible waste and the Micro Gas Turbine (MGT) can play a key role in this scenario. Due to the intrinsic properties and the high flexibility of operation of this energy conversion system the exploitation of alternative fuels and the integration of the MGT itself with other energy conversion systems (solar field ORC fuel cells) represent one of the most effective strategies to achieve higher conversion efficiencies and to reduce emissions from power systems. The present work aims to review the results obtained by the researchers in the last years. The different technologies are analyzed in detail both separately and under a more complete view considering two or more solutions embedded in micro-grid configurations.

In this study a green hydrogen system was studied to provide electricity for an office building in the Sharjah emirate in the United Arab Emirates. Using a solar PV a fuel cell a diesel generator and battery energy storage; a hybrid green hydrogen energy system was compared to a standard hybrid system (Solar PV a diesel generator and battery energy storage). The results show that both systems adequately provided the power needed for the load of the office building. The cost of the energy for both the basic and green hydrogen energy systems was 0.305 USD/kWh and 0.313 USD/kWh respectively. The cost of the energy for both systems is very similar even though the capital cost of the green hydrogen energy system was the highest value; however the replacement and operational costs of the basic system were higher in comparison to the green hydrogen energy system. Moreover the impact of the basic system in terms of the carbon footprint was more significant when compared with the green hydrogen system. The reduction in carbon dioxide was a 4.6 ratio when compared with the basic system.

Aircraft powered by green hydrogen (H2) are a lever for the aviation sector to reduce the climate impact. Previous research already focused on evaluations of H2 aircraft technology but analyses on infrastructure related cost factors are rarely undertaken. Therefore this paper aims to provide a holistic overview of previous efforts and introduces an approach to assess the importance of a H2 infrastructure for aviation. A short and a medium-range aircraft are modelled and modified for H2 propulsion. Based on these a detailed cost analysis is used to compare both aircraft and infrastructure related direct operating costs (DOC). Overall it is shown that the economy of H2 aviation highly depends on the availability of low-cost green liquid hydrogen (LH2) supply infrastructure. While total DOC might even slightly decrease in a best LH2 cost case total DOC could also increase between 10 and 70% (short-range) and 15e102% (medium-range) due to LH2 costs alone.

The UK government heat strategy is partially based on decarbonisation pathways from the UK MARKAL energy system model. We review how heat provision is represented in UK MARKAL identifying a number of shortcomings and areas for improvement. We present a completely revised model with improved estimations of future heat demands and a consistent representation of all heat generation technologies. This model represents all heat delivery infrastructure for the first time and uses dynamic growth constraints to improve the modelling of transitions according to innovation theory. Our revised model incorporates a simplified housing stock model which is used produce highly-refined decarbonisation pathways for residential heat provision. We compare this disaggregated model against an aggregated equivalent which is similar to the existing approach in UK MARKAL. Disaggregating does not greatly change the total residential fuel consumption in two scenarios so the benefits of disaggregation will likely be limited if the focus of a study is elsewhere. Yet for studies of residential heat disaggregation enables us to vary consumer behaviour and government policies on different house types as well as highlighting different technology trends across the stock in comparison with previous aggregated versions of the model.

Introducing CO2 electrochemical conversion technology to the iron-making blast furnace not only reduces CO2 emissions but also produces H2 as a byproduct that can be used as an auxiliary reductant to further decrease carbon consumption and emissions. With adequate H2 supply to the blast furnace the injection of H2 is limited because of the disadvantageous thermodynamic characteristics of the H2 reduction reaction in the blast furnace. This paper presents thermodynamic analysis of H2 behaviour at different stages with the thermal requirement consideration of an iron-making blast furnace. The effect of injecting CO2 lean top gas and CO2 conversion products H2–CO gas through the raceway and/or shaft tuyeres are investigated under different operating conditions. H2 utilisation efficiency and corresponding injection volume are studied by considering different reduction stages. The relationship between H2 injection and coke rate is established. Injecting 7.9–10.9 m3/tHM of H2 saved 1 kg/tHM coke rate depending on injection position. Compared with the traditional blast furnace injecting 80 m3/tHM of H2 with a medium oxygen enrichment rate (9%) and integrating CO2 capture and conversion reduces CO2 emissions from 534 to 278 m3/tHM. However increasing the hydrogen injection amount causes this iron-making process to consume more energy than a traditional blast furnace does.

Hydrogen has been attracting attention as a fuel in the transportation sector to achieve carbon neutrality. Hydrogen storage in liquid form is preferred in locomotives ships drones and aircraft because these require high power but have limited space. However liquid hydrogen must be in a cryogenic state wherein thermal insulation is a core problem. Inner materials including glass bubbles multi-layer insulation (MLI) high vacuum and vapor-cooled shields are used for thermal insulation. An analytic study is preferred and proceeds liquid hydrogen tanks due to safety regulations in each country. This study reviewed the relevant literature for thermodynamic modeling. The literature was divided into static dynamic and systematic studies. In summary the authors summarized the following future research needs: The optimal design of the structure including suspension baffle and insulation system can be studied to minimize the boil-off gas (BOG). A dynamic study of the pressure mass flow and vaporizer can be completed. The change of the components arrangement from the conventional diesel–electric locomotive is necessary.