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Comparisons of Hazard Distances and Accident Durations Between Hydrogen Vehicles and CNG Vehicles
Sep 2017
Publication
For the emerging hydrogen-powered vehicles the safety concern is one of the most important barriers for their further development and commercialization. The safety of commercial natural gas vehicles has been well accepted and the total number of natural gas vehicles operating worldwide was approximately 23 million by November 2016. Hydrogen vehicles would be more acceptable for the general public if their safety is comparable to that of commercialized CNG vehicles. A comparison study is conducted to reveal the differences of hazard distances and accident durations between hydrogen vehicles and CNG vehicles during a representative accident in an open environment. The tank blowdown time for hydrogen and CNG are calculated separately to compare the accident durations. CFD simulations for real world situations are performed to study the hazard distances from impinging jet fires under vehicle. Results show that the release duration for CNG vehicle is over two times longer than that for hydrogen vehicle indicating that CNG vehicle jet fire accident is more timeconsuming and firefighters have to wait a longer time before they can safely approach the vehicle. For both hydrogen vehicle and CNG vehicle the longest hazard distance near the ground occur about 1 to 4 seconds after the initiation of the thermally-activated pressure relief devices. Afterwards the flames will shrink and the hazard distances will decrease. For firefighters with bunker gear they must stand 6 m and 14 m away from the hydrogen vehicle and CNG vehicle respectively. For general public a perimeter of 12 m and 29 m should be set around the accident scene for hydrogen vehicle and CNG vehicle respectively.
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies for Heating: A Review
Jan 2015
Publication
The debate on low-carbon heat in Europe has become focused on a narrow range of technological options and has largely neglected hydrogen and fuel cell technologies despite these receiving strong support towards commercialisation in Asia. This review examines the potential benefits of these technologies across different markets particularly the current state of development and performance of fuel cell micro-CHP. Fuel cells offer some important benefits over other low-carbon heating technologies and steady cost reductions through innovation are bringing fuel cells close to commercialisation in several countries. Moreover fuel cells offer wider energy system benefits for high-latitude countries with peak electricity demands in winter. Hydrogen is a zero-carbon alternative to natural gas which could be particularly valuable for those countries with extensive natural gas distribution networks but many national energy system models examine neither hydrogen nor fuel cells for heating. There is a need to include hydrogen and fuel cell heating technologies in future scenario analyses and for policymakers to take into account the full value of the potential contribution of hydrogen and fuel cells to low-carbon energy systems.
Effect of Ternary Transition Metal Sulfide FeNi2S4 on Hydrogen Storage Performance of MgH2
Jan 2022
Publication
Hydrogen storage is a key link in hydrogen economy where solid-state hydrogen storage is considered as the most promising approach because it can meet the requirement of high density and safety. Thereinto magnesium-based materials (MgH2) are currently deemed as an attractive candidate due to the potentially high hydrogen storage density (7.6 wt%) however the stable thermodynamics and slow kinetics limit the practical application. In this study we design a ternary transition metal sulfide FeNi2S4 with a hollow balloon structure as a catalyst of MgH2 to address the above issues by constructing a MgH2/Mg2NiH4−MgS/Fe system. Notably the dehydrogenation/hydrogenation of MgH2 has been significantly improved due to the synergistic catalysis of active species of Mg2Ni/Mg2NiH4 MgS and Fe originated from the MgH2-FeNi2S4 composite. The hydrogen absorption capacity of the MgH2-FeNi2S4 composite reaches to 4.02 wt% at 373 K for 1 h a sharp contrast to the milled-MgH2 (0.67 wt%). In terms of dehydrogenation process the initial dehydrogenation temperature of the composite is 80 K lower than that of the milled-MgH2 and the dehydrogenation activation energy decreases by 95.7 kJ mol–1 compared with the milled-MgH2 (161.2 kJ mol–1). This method provides a new strategy for improving the dehydrogenation/hydrogenation performance of the MgH2 material.
Autoignition of Hydrogen/Ammonia Blends at Elevated Pressures and Temperatures
Sep 2019
Publication
Hydrogen stored or transported as ammonia has been proposed as a sustainable carbon-free alternative for fossil-fuels in high-temperature industrial processes including power generation. Although ammonia itself is toxic and exhibits both a low flame speed and calorific value it rapidly decomposes to hydrogen in high temperature environments suggesting the potential use in applications which incorporate fuel preheating. In this work the rate of ammonia-to-hydrogen decomposition is initially simulated at elevated temperatures to indicate the proportion of fuel conversion in conditions similar to gas pipelines gas-turbines or furnaces with exhaust-gas recirculation. Following this different proportions of hydrogen and ammonia are numerically simulated in independent zero-dimensional plug-flow-reactors at pressures ranging from atmospheric to 50 MPa and pre-heating temperatures from 600 K to 1600 K. Deflagration of very-lean-to-fuel-rich mixtures was investigated employing air as the oxidant stream. Analyses of these reactors provide estimates of autoignition thresholds of the hydrogen/ammonia blends which are relevant for the safe implementation and operation of hydrogen/ammonia blends or pure ammonia as a fuel source. Further operational considerations are subsequently identified for using ammonia or hydrogen/ammonia blends as a hydrogen fuel carrier by quantifying residual concentrations of hydrogen and ammonia fuel products as well as other toxic emissions within the hot exhaust products.
Update on Regulation Review for HRS Construction and Operations in Japan
Oct 2015
Publication
In 2005 the Japanese High-pressure Gas Safety Act the Fire Service Act and the Building Standards Act were revised to establish the requirements for 35 MPa hydrogen stations. And in 2012-2014 revisions were made to the High-pressure Gas Safety Act and the Fire Service Act to provide the regulatory requirements for 70 MPa hydrogen stations. We conducted a study on materials that may contribute to prepare technical standards concerning the major 4 items 12 additional items and 13 new items which may affect the costs from the point of view of promoting the hydrogen infrastructure.
A Study on Dispersion Resulting From Liquefied Hydrogen Spilling
Oct 2015
Publication
For massive utilization of hydrogen energy it is necessary to transport a large quantity of hydrogen by liquefied hydrogen carriers. However the current rule on ships carrying liquefied hydrogen in bulks do not address the maritime transport of liquefied hydrogen and the safety assessment of liquefied hydrogen carriage is thus very important. In the present study we spilled liquefied hydrogen and LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) on the surface of various materials and compared the difference of their spread and dispersion. Liquefied hydrogen immediately dispersed upward compared to LNG. Furthermore we also measured the flammability limit of low temperature hydrogen gas. Its range at low temperature was narrower than the range at normal temperature.
CFD Evaluation Against a Large Scale Unconfined Hydrogen Deflagration
Oct 2015
Publication
In the present work CFD simulations of a large scale open deflagration experiment are performed. Stoichiometric hydrogen–air mixture occupies a 20 m hemisphere. Two combustion models are compared and evaluated against the experiment: the Eddy Dissipation Concept model and a multi-physics combustion model which calculates turbulent burning velocity based on Yakhot's equation. Sensitivity analysis on the value of fractal dimension of the latter model is performed. A semi-empirical relation which estimates the fractal dimension is also tested. The effect of the turbulence model on the results is examined. LES approach and k-ε models are used. The multi-physics combustion model with constant fractal dimension value equal to 2.3 using the RNG LES turbulence model achieves the best agreement with the experiment.
Modelling Heat Transfer in an Intumescent Paint and its Effect on Fire Resistance of On-board Hydrogen Storage
Oct 2015
Publication
This paper describes a 1-D numerical model for the prediction of heat and mass transfer through an intumescent paint that is applied to an on-board high-pressure GH2 storage tank. The intumescent paint is treated as a composite system consisting of three general components decomposing in accordance with independent finite reaction rates. A moving mesh that is employed for a better prediction of the expansion process of the intumescent paint is based on the local changes of heat and mass. The numerical model is validated against experiments by Cagliostro et al. (1975). The overall model results are used to estimate effect of intumescent paint on fire resistance of carbon-fibre reinforced GH2 storage.
HyDeploy Project - Second Project Progress Report
Dec 2018
Publication
The HyDeploy project seeks to address a key issue for UK customers: how to reduce the carbon they emit in heating their homes. The UK has a world class gas grid delivering heat conveniently and safely to over 83% of homes. Emissions can be reduced by lowering the carbon content of gas through blending with hydrogen. This delivers carbon savings without customers requiring disruptive and expensive changes in their homes. It also provides the platform for deeper carbon savings by enabling wider adoption of hydrogen across the energy system.
This Network Innovation Competition (NIC) funded project seeks to establish the level of hydrogen that can be safely blended with natural gas for transport and use in a UK network. Under its smart energy network innovation demonstration programme Keele University is establishing its electricity and gas networks as facilities to drive forward innovation in the energy sector. The objective of HyDeploy is to trial natural gas blended with 20%mol of hydrogen in a part of the Keele gas network. Before any hydrogen can be blended with natural gas in the network the percentage of hydrogen to be delivered must be approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). It must be satisfied that the approved blended gas will be as safe to use as normal gas. Such approval is provided as an Exemption to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations. These regulations ensure the safe use and management of gas through the gas network in the UK. Following such approval hydrogen production and grid injection units are to be installed and an extensive trial programme undertaken. Blending hydrogen at 20%mol with natural gas across the UK would save around 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year the equivalent of removing 2.5 million cars from the road.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
This Network Innovation Competition (NIC) funded project seeks to establish the level of hydrogen that can be safely blended with natural gas for transport and use in a UK network. Under its smart energy network innovation demonstration programme Keele University is establishing its electricity and gas networks as facilities to drive forward innovation in the energy sector. The objective of HyDeploy is to trial natural gas blended with 20%mol of hydrogen in a part of the Keele gas network. Before any hydrogen can be blended with natural gas in the network the percentage of hydrogen to be delivered must be approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). It must be satisfied that the approved blended gas will be as safe to use as normal gas. Such approval is provided as an Exemption to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations. These regulations ensure the safe use and management of gas through the gas network in the UK. Following such approval hydrogen production and grid injection units are to be installed and an extensive trial programme undertaken. Blending hydrogen at 20%mol with natural gas across the UK would save around 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year the equivalent of removing 2.5 million cars from the road.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
HyDeploy Project - First Project Progress Report
Dec 2017
Publication
The HyDeploy Project seeks to address a key issue for UK customers: how to reduce the carbon they emit in heating their homes. The UK has a world class gas grid delivering heat conveniently and safely to over 83% of homes. Emissions could be reduced by lowering the carbon content of gas through blending with hydrogen. Compared with solutions such as heat pumps this means that customers would not need disruptive and expensive changes in their homes. This Network Innovation Competition (NIC) funded project seeks to establish the level of hydrogen that can be safely blended with natural gas for transport and use in a UK network.
Under its Smart Energy Network Demonstration innovation programme Keele University is establishing its electricity and gas networks as facilities to drive forward innovation in the energy sector. The objective of HyDeploy is to trial natural gas blended with potentially up to 20% volume of hydrogen in a part of the Keele gas network. Before any hydrogen can be blended with natural gas in the network the percentage of hydrogen to be delivered must be approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). It must be satisfied that the approved blended gas will be as safe to use as normal gas. Any approval will be given as an exemption to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations. These regulations ensure the safe use and management of gas through the gas network in the UK. The evidence presented to the HSE comprises critically appraised literature combined with the results from a specifically commissioned experimental and testing programme. Based on engagement with all local customers this includes detailed safety checks on the network appliances and installations at Keele. Subject to approval by the HSE the hydrogen production and grid injection units will be installed and an extensive trial programme of blending will be undertaken. If hydrogen were blended at 20% volume with natural gas across the UK it would save around 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year the equivalent of taking 2.5 million cars off the road.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
Under its Smart Energy Network Demonstration innovation programme Keele University is establishing its electricity and gas networks as facilities to drive forward innovation in the energy sector. The objective of HyDeploy is to trial natural gas blended with potentially up to 20% volume of hydrogen in a part of the Keele gas network. Before any hydrogen can be blended with natural gas in the network the percentage of hydrogen to be delivered must be approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). It must be satisfied that the approved blended gas will be as safe to use as normal gas. Any approval will be given as an exemption to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations. These regulations ensure the safe use and management of gas through the gas network in the UK. The evidence presented to the HSE comprises critically appraised literature combined with the results from a specifically commissioned experimental and testing programme. Based on engagement with all local customers this includes detailed safety checks on the network appliances and installations at Keele. Subject to approval by the HSE the hydrogen production and grid injection units will be installed and an extensive trial programme of blending will be undertaken. If hydrogen were blended at 20% volume with natural gas across the UK it would save around 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year the equivalent of taking 2.5 million cars off the road.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
Hydrogen Transport and Trapping: From Quantum Effects to Alloy Design
Jun 2017
Publication
This discussion session concerned experimental and theoretical investigations of the atomistic properties underlying the energetics and kinetics of hydrogen trapping and diffusion in metallic systems.
This article is a transcription of the recorded discussion of ‘Hydrogen transport and trapping: from quantum effects to alloy design.‘ at the Royal Society Scientific Discussion Meeting Challenges of Hydrogen and Metals 16–18 January 2017. The text is approved by the contributors. Y.-S.C. transcribed the session. H.L. assisted in the preparation of the manuscript.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
This article is a transcription of the recorded discussion of ‘Hydrogen transport and trapping: from quantum effects to alloy design.‘ at the Royal Society Scientific Discussion Meeting Challenges of Hydrogen and Metals 16–18 January 2017. The text is approved by the contributors. Y.-S.C. transcribed the session. H.L. assisted in the preparation of the manuscript.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Changing the Fate of Fuel Cell Vehicles: Can lessons be Learnt from Tesla Motors?
Dec 2014
Publication
Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) are a disruptive innovation and are currently looking towards niche market entry. However commercialisation has been unsuccessful thus far and there is a limited amount of literature that can guide their market entry. In this paper a historical case study is undertaken which looks at Tesla Motors high-end encroachment market entry strategy. FCVs have been compared to Tesla vehicles due to their similarities; both are disruptive innovations both are high cost and both are zero emission vehicles. Therefore this paper looks at what can be learned form Tesla Motors successful market entry strategy and proposes a market entry strategy for FCVs. It was found that FCVs need to enact a paradigm shift from their current market entry strategy to one of high-end encroachment. When this has been achieved FCVs will have greater potential for market penetration.
Venting Deflagrations of Local Hydrogen-air Mixture
Oct 2015
Publication
The paper describes a lumped-parameter model for vented deflagrations of localised and layered fuel air mixtures. Theoretical model background is described to allow insight into the model development with focus on lean mixtures and overpressures significantly below 0.1 MPa for protection of low strength equipment and buildings. Phenomena leading to combustion augmentation was accounted based on conclusions of recent CFD studies. Technique to treat layered mixtures with concentration gradient is demonstrated. The model is validated against 25 vented deflagration experiments with lean non-uniform and layered hydrogen-air mixtures performed in Health and Safety Laboratory (UK) and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (Germany).
The Journey to Smarter Heat
Mar 2019
Publication
As the UK’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases the supply of domestic industrial and commercial heat must be decarbonised if the UK is to meet its climate change targets.<br/><br/>This report publishes the outcomes from Phase 1 of the Energy Technologies Institute’s Smart Systems and Heat programme highlighting that for the UK to transition to a low carbon heating system it must understand consumer needs and behaviours while connecting this with the development and integration of technologies and new business models.<br/><br/>Written by the ETI with support from the Energy Systems Catapult this report tackles three interconnected areas: heating needs and controls within the home; heating infrastructure and building retrofit at a local level; and the operation and governance of the whole system.<br/><br/>The research also shows that as part of a low carbon heating system upgrade advanced controls are critical to performance sizing and operating costs enabling smaller appliances and lower peak electricity demands and maximising the efficiency of existing infrastructure. With significant fabric retrofits potentially required in around 10 million of the existing 28 million dwellings in the UK housing stock the report recommends that building new homes to be both very efficient and “low carbon ready” is a low regret decision which should be progressed with some urgency.
Multistage Risk Analysis and Safety Study of a Hydrogen Energy Station
Sep 2017
Publication
China has plenty of renewable energy like wind power and solar energy especially in the northwest part of the country. Due to the volatile and intermittent characters of the green powers high penetration level of renewable resources could arise grid stabilization problem. Therefore electricity storage is considered as a solution and hydrogen energy storage is proposed. Instead of storing the electricity directly it converts electricity into hydrogen and the energy in hydrogen will be released as needed from gas to electricity and heat. The transformed green power can be fed to the power grid and heat supply network. State Grid Corporation of China carried out its first hydrogen demonstration project. In the demonstration project an alkaline electrolyzer and a PEM hydrogen fuel cell stack are decided as the hydrogen producer and consumer respectively. Hydrogen safety issue is always of significant importance to secure the property. In order to develop a dedicated safety analysis method for hydrogen energy storage system in power industry the risk analysis for the power-to-gas-topower&heat facility was made. The hazard and operability (HAZOP) study and the failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) are performed sequentially to the installation to identify the most problematic parts of the system in view of hydrogen safety and possible failure modes and consequences. At the third step the typical hydrogen leak accident scenarios are simulated by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) computer code. The resulted pressure loads of the possibly ignited hydrogen-air mixture in the facility container are estimated conservatively. Important safeguards and mitigation measures are proposed based on the three-stage risk and safety studies.
Monitoring H2 Bubbles by Real Time H2 Sensor
Sep 2017
Publication
Portable H2 sensor was made by using mass spectrometer for the outside monitoring experiment: the leak test the replacement test of gas pipe line the combustion test the explosion experiment the H2 diffusion experiment and the recent issue of the exhaust gas of Fuel Cell Vehicle. In order to check the real time concentration of H2 in various conditions even in the highly humid condition the system volume of the sampling route was minimized with attaching the humidifier. Also to calibrate H2 concentration automatically the specific concentration H2 small cylinder was mounted in the system. In the experiment when H2 gas was introduced in the N2 flow or air in the tube or the high-pressure bottle highly concentrated H2 phases were observed by this sensor without diffusion. This H2 sensor can provide the real time information of the hydrogen molecules and the clouds. The basic characterization of this sensor showed 0-100% H2 concentrations within 2ms. Our observation showed the size of the high concentration phase of H2 and the low concentration phase after mixing process. The mixed and unmixed H2 unintended concentration of cloud gas the high speed small cluster of hydrogen molecules in purged gas were explored by this real time monitoring system.
In-situ Study of the Effect of Hydrogen on Fatigue Crack Initiation in Polycrystalline Nickel
Aug 2019
Publication
Correlating hydrogen embrittlement phenomenon with the metallic microstructural features holds the key for developing metals resistant to hydrogen-based failures. In case of fatigue failure of hydrogen charged metals in addition to the hydrogen-based failure mechanisms associated with monotonic loading such as HELP HEDE etc. microstructural features such as grain size type of grain boundary (special/random) fraction of special grain boundaries; their network and triple junctions can play a complex role. The probable sites for fatigue crack initiation in such metals can be identified as the sites of highest hydrogen concentration or accumulated plastic strain. To this end we have developed an experimental framework based on in-situ fatigue crack initiation and propagation studies under scanning electron microscope (SEM) to identify the weakest link in the metallic microstructure leading to failure. In-situ fatigue experiments are performed on carefully designed polycrystalline nickel (99.95% pure) specimens (miniaturised shallow-notched & electro-polished) using a 10 kN fatigue stage inside the SEM. Electron Back Scattering Diffraction (EBSD) map of the notched region surface helps identify the distribution of special/random grain boundaries triple junctions and grain orientation. The specimen surface in the shallow notched region for both the hydrogen charged and un-charged specimens are then carefully studied to correlate the microstructural feature associated with fatigue crack initiation sites. Such correlation of the fatigue crack initiation site and microstructural feature is further corroborated with the knowledge of hydrogen trapping and grain’s elastic anisotropicity to be either the site of high hydrogen concentration accumulated plastic slip or both.
Modeling Thermal Response of Polymer Composite Hydrogen Cylinders
Oct 2015
Publication
With the anticipated introduction of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to the market there is an increasing need to address the fire resistance of hydrogen cylinders for onboard storage. Sufficient fire resistance is essential to ensure safe evacuation in the event of car fire accidents. The authors have developed a Finite Element (FE) model for predicting the thermal response of composite hydrogen cylinders within the frame of the open source FE code Elmer. The model accounts for the decomposition of the polymer matrix and effects of volatile gas transport in the composite. Model comparison with experimental data has been conducted using a classical one-dimensional test case of polymer composite subjected to fire. The validated model was then used to analyze a type-4 hydrogen cylinder subjected to an engulfing external propane fire mimicking a published cylinder fire experiment. The external flame is modelled and simulated using the open source code FireFOAM. A simplified failure criteria based on internal pressure increase is subsequently used to determine the cylinder fire resistance.
Early Community Engagement with Hydrogen in Australia
Sep 2019
Publication
Community support and acceptance is part of the licence to operate for any industry. The hydrogen industry is no different and we will need to have strong support from the broad community to establish a viable hydrogen economy in Australia.<br/>As Woodside progresses our plans for bulk hydrogen export and associated domestic opportunities stakeholder engagement throughout will be critical to success. This talk will share Woodside’s approach to community engagement and local opportunities and how we plan to draw on more than 30 years’ experience operating liquefied natural gas plants in Western Australia’s Pilbara region.<br/>At this early stage of our hydrogen work we are beginning with the end in mind: engaging the customer. We’ve worked with local Australian businesses to help raise public awareness and interest in hydrogen by producing prototype consumer products. We will share experiences from this work that underscore the value of early engagement with all stakeholders: government regulators industrial and community neighbours and end consumers to enable the hydrogen economy vision for Australia. This paper will present information on community engagement and acceptance of hydrogen in Australia.<br/>This information has come from Woodside Energy Ltd by engaging with small businesses government regulators and the community at large. As we establish community acceptance for hydrogen as an energy carrier in Australia Woodside has been working in parallel to have standards and regulations established for hydrogen in Australia. Through our work with Hydrogen Mobility Australia we are advocating the adoption of ISO standards unless there is a specific geographic or health safety and environment reason not to.
European Hydrogen Safety Panel (EHSP)
Sep 2019
Publication
Inaki Azkarate,
Marco Carcassi,
Francesco Dolci,
Alberto Garcia-Hombrados,
Stuart J. Hawksworth,
Thomas Jordan,
Georg W. Mair,
Daniele Melideo,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Pietro Moretto,
Ernst Arndt Reinecke,
Pratap Sathiah,
Ulrich Schmidtchen,
Trygve Skjold,
Etienne Studer,
Tom Van Esbroeck,
Elena Vyazmina,
Jennifer Xiaoling Wen,
Jianjun Xiao and
Joachim Grüne
The FCH 2 JU launched the European Hydrogen Safety Panel (EHSP) initiative in 2017. The mission of the EHSP is to assist the FCH 2 JU both at programme and at project level in assuring that hydrogen safety is adequately managed and to promote and disseminate H2 safety culture within and outside of the FCH 2 JU programme. The EHSP is composed of a multidisciplinary pool of safety experts grouped in ad-hoc working groups (task forces) according to the tasks to be performed and to expertise. The scope and activities of the EHSP are structured around four main areas:
TF.1. Support at project level The EHSP task under this category includes the development of measures to avoid any accident by integrating safety learnings expertise and planning into FCH 2 JU funded projects and by ensuring that all projects address and incorporate the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety appropriately. To this end a Safety guidance document for hydrogen and fuel cell projects will be produced.
TF.2. Support at programme level Activities under this category include answering questions related to hydrogen safety in an independent coordinated and consolidated way via hotline-support or if necessary via physical presence of safety representative at the FCH 2 JU. It could also include a short introduction to hydrogen safety and the provision of specific guidelines for the handling storage and use of hydrogen in the public domain. As a start a clear strategy on this should be developed and therefore related M ulti-annual work plan 2018-2020.
TF.3. Data collection and assessment The EHSP tasks include the analysis of existing events already introduced in the European Hydrogen Safety Reference Database (HIAD) and of new information from relevant mishaps incidents or accidents. The EHSP should therefore derive lessons learned and provide together with the involved parties further general recommendations to all stakeholders based on these data. For 2018 the following deliverables should be produced: methodology to collect inputs from projects and to provide lessons learned and guidelines assessment and lessons learned from HIAD and a report on research progress in the field of hydrogen safety.
TF.4. Public outreach Framed within the context of the intended broad information exchange the EHSP tasks under this category include the development of a regularly updated webpage hosted on the FCH 2 JU website.
Hydrogen Production Using Solar Energy - Technical Analysis
Mar 2019
Publication
This paper presents a case study concerning a plant for hydrogen production and storage having a daily capacity of 100kg. The plant is located in Cluj-Napoca Romania. It produces hydrogen by means of water electrolysis while the energy is provided using solar energy. We performed the calculations for four different technical solutions used for the hydrogen production and storage plant and also we considered three scenarios regarding the sub-systems of the hydrogen production and storage plant efficiency. The conclusion of this study is that one can maximize the conversion of solar radiation into chemical energy in the form of hydrogen by hybridizing the solar hydrogen production system namely using both electrical energy as well as thermal energy in the form of steam.
Effects of Steam Injection on the Permissible Hydrogen Content and Gaseous Emissions in a Micro Gas Turbine Supplied by a Mixture of CH4 and H2: A CFD Analysis
Apr 2022
Publication
The use of hydrogen in small scale gas turbines is currently limited by several issues. Blending hydrogen with methane or other gaseous fuels can be considered a low medium-term viable solution with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In fact only small amounts can be mixed with methane in premixed combustors due to the risk of flashback. The aim of this article is to investigate the injection of small quantities of steam as a method of increasing the maximum permissible hydrogen content in a mixture with methane. The proposed approach involves introducing the steam directly into the combustion chamber into the main fuel feeding system of a Turbec T100. The study is carried out by means of CFD analysis of the combustion process. A thermodynamic analysis of the energy system is used to determine boundary conditions. The combustion chamber is discretized using a three-dimensional mesh consisting of 4.7 million nodes and the RANS RSM model is used to simulate the effects of turbulence. The results show that the addition of steam may triple the permissible percentage of hydrogen in the mixture for the considered MGT passing from 10% to over 30% by volume also leading to a reduction in NOx emissions without a significant variation in CO emissions.
Delivering a Safe, Viable Hydrogen Economy in Australia
Sep 2019
Publication
At Woodside Energy Ltd (Woodside) safety is built into everything we do and progressing hydrogen opportunities is no exception. This paper will present information from the macro level of process safety for hydrogen at a plant level through to the consumer experience. Examples of the benefits of an integrated process safety approach will be used from Woodside’s experience pioneering the liquefied natural gas industry in Australia.<br/>This paper will underscore the reasons why Australia needs to adopt robust safety standards for hydrogen as quickly as possible in order to advance the hydrogen economy across all sectors. Focus areas requiring attention during development of standards and potential mechanisms to close will be proposed. Establishing a hydrogen economy in Australia could lower carbon emissions stabilise power grids increase renewable energy penetration and create jobs. Developing Australian standards that are fully aligned with international standards will facilitate Australia taking a leading role in the global hydrogen economy.
Explosion and Fire Risk Analyses of Maritime Fuel Cell Rooms with Hydrogen
Sep 2017
Publication
A methodology for explosion and fire risk analyses in enclosed rooms is presented. The objectives of this analysis are to accurately predict the risks associated with hydrogen leaks in maritime applications and to use the approach to provide decision support regarding design and risk-prevention and risk mitigating measures. The methodology uses CFD tools and simpler consequence models for ventilation dispersion and explosion scenarios as well as updated frequency for leaks and ignition. Risk is then efficiently calculated with a Monte Carlo routine capturing the transient behavior of the leak. This makes it possible to efficiently obtain effects of sensitivities and design options maintaining safety and reducing costs.
New China National Standard on Safety of Hydrogen Systems- Keys for Understanding and Use
Sep 2011
Publication
Development of regulations codes and standards on hydrogen safety is a primary ingredient in overcoming barriers to widespread use of hydrogen energy. Key points of the new China National Standard Essential safety requirements for hydrogen systems metal hydrogen compatibility and risk control of flammability and explosion are discussed. Features of the new standard such as safety requirements for slush hydrogen systems and solid state hydrogen storage systems and introductions for hydrogen production by renewable energy are analyzed in this paper.
Fire Risk on High-pressure Full Composite Cylinders for Automotive Applications
Sep 2011
Publication
In the event of a fire the TPRD (Thermally activated Pressure Relief Device) prevents the high-pressure full composite cylinder from bursting by detecting high temperatures and releasing the pressurized gas. The current safety performance of both the vessel and the TPRD is demonstrated by an engulfing bonfire test. However there is no requirement concerning the effect of the TPRD release which may produce a hazardous hydrogen flame due to the high flow-rate of the TPRD. It is necessary to understand better the behavior of an unprotected composite cylinder exposed to fire in order to design appropriate protection for it and to be able to reduce the length of any potential hydrogen flame. For that purpose a test campaign was performed on a 36 L cylinder with a design pressure of 70 MPa. The time from fire exposure to the bursting of this cylinder (the burst delay) was measured. The influence of the fire type (partial or global) and the influence of the pressure in the cylinder during the exposure were studied. It was found that the TPRD orifice diameter should be significantly reduced compared to current practice.
An Overview of Hydrogen Safety Sensors and Requirements
Sep 2009
Publication
There exists an international commitment to increase the utilization of hydrogen as a clean and renewable alternative to carbon-based fuels. The availability of hydrogen safety sensors is critical to assure the safe deployment of hydrogen systems. Already the use of hydrogen safety sensors is required for the indoor fueling of fuel cell powered forklifts (e.g. NFPA 52 Vehicular Fuel Systems Code [1]). Additional Codes and Standards specific to hydrogen detectors are being developed [2 3] which when adopted will impose mandatory analytical performance metrics. There are a large number of commercially available hydrogen safety sensors. Because end-users have a broad range of sensor options for their specific applications the final selection of an appropriate sensor technology can be complicated. Facility engineers and other end-users are expected to select the optimal sensor technology choice. However some sensor technologies may not be a good fit for a given application. Informed decisions require an understanding of the general analytical performance specifications that can be expected by a given sensor technology. Although there are a large number of commercial sensors most can be classified into relatively few specific sensor types (e.g. electrochemical metal oxide catalytic bead and others). Performance metrics of commercial sensors produced on a specific platform may vary between manufacturers but to a significant degree a specific platform has characteristic analytical trends advantages and limitations. Knowledge of these trends facilitates the selection of the optimal technology for a specific application (i.e. indoor vs. outdoor environments). An understanding of the various sensor options and their general analytical performance specifications would be invaluable in guiding the selection of the most appropriate technology for the designated application.
Validation of Cryo-Compressed Hydrogen Storage (CCH2) – A Probabilistic Approach
Sep 2011
Publication
Due to its promising potential to overcome the challenge of thermal endurance of liquid hydrogen storage systems cryo-compressed hydrogen storage (CcH2) is regarded as a verypromising physical storage solution in particular for use in larger passenger vehicles with high energy and long range requirements. A probabilistic approach for validation of safe operation of CcH2 storage systems under automotive requirements and experimental results on life-cycle testing is presented. The operational regime of BMW's CcH2 storage covers pressures of up to 35 MPa and temperatures from +65 C down to -240 C applying high loads on composite and metallic materials of the cryogenic pressure vesselcompared to ambient carbon fiber reinforced pressure vessels. Thus the proof of fatigue strength under combined pressure and deep temperature cyclic loads remains a challenging exercise. Furthermore it will be shown that the typical automotive safety and life-cycle requirements can be fulfilled by the CcH2 vehicle storage system and moreover that the CcH2 storage system can even feature safety advantages over a CGH2 storage system mainly due to the advantageous thermodynamic properties of cryogenic hydrogen the lower storage pressure and due to the intrinsic protection against intrusion through the double-shell design.
Self-Ignition of Hydrogen Jet Fires By Electrostatic Discharge Induced By Entrained Particulates
Sep 2011
Publication
The potential for particulates entrained in hydrogen releases to generate electrostatic charge and induce electrostatic discharge ignitions was investigated. A series of tests were performed in which hydrogen was released through a 3.75-mm-diameter orifice from an initial pressure of 140 bar. Electrostatic field sensors were used to characterize the electrification of known quantities of iron oxide particulates deliberately entrained in the release. The ignition experiments focused on using charged particulates to induce spark discharges from isolated conductors and corona discharges. A total of 12 ignition events were observed. The results show that electrification of entrained particulates is a viable self-ignition mechanism of hydrogen releases.
Clean Energy and the Hydrogen Economy
Jan 2017
Publication
In recent years new-found interest in the hydrogen economy from both industry and academia has helped to shed light on its potential. Hydrogen can enable an energy revolution by providing much needed flexibility in renewable energy systems. As a clean energy carrier hydrogen offers a range of benefits for simultaneously decarbonizing the transport residential commercial and industrial sectors. Hydrogen is shown here to have synergies with other low-carbon alternatives and can enable a more cost-effective transition to de-carbonized and cleaner energy systems. This paper presents the opportunities for the use of hydrogen in key sectors of the economy and identifies the benefits and challenges within the hydrogen supply chain for power-to-gas power-to-power and gas-to-gas supply pathways. While industry players have already started the market introduction of hydrogen fuel cell systems including fuel cell electric vehicles and micro-combined heat and power devices the use of hydrogen at grid scale requires the challenges of clean hydrogen production bulk storage and distribution to be resolved. Ultimately greater government support in partnership with industry and academia is still needed to realize hydrogen's potential across all economic sectors.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Comparison of NFPA and ISO Approaches for Evaluating Separation Distances
Sep 2011
Publication
The development of a set of safety codes and standards for hydrogen facilities is necessary to ensure they are designed and operated safely. To help ensure that a hydrogen facility meets an acceptable level of risk code and standard development organizations (SDOs) are utilizing risk-informed concepts in developing hydrogen codes and standards. Two SDOs the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) through its Technical Committee (TC) 197 on hydrogen technologies have been developing standards for gaseous hydrogen facilities that specify the facilities have certain safety features use equipment made of material suitable for a hydrogen environment and have specified separation distances. Under Department of Energy funding Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) has been supporting efforts by both of these SDOs to develop the separation distances included in their respective standards. Important goals in these efforts are to use a defensible science-based approach to establish these requirements and to the extent possible harmonize the requirements. International harmonization of regulations codes and standards is critical for enabling global market penetration of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies.
CFD and VR for Risk Communication and Safety Training
Sep 2011
Publication
There are new safety challenges with an increased use of hydrogen e.g. that people may not see dangerous jet flames in case of an incident. Compared to conventional fuels hydrogen has very different characteristics and physical properties and is stored at very high pressure or at very low temperatures. Thus the nature of hazard scenarios will be very different. Consequence modelling of ventilation releases explosions and fires can be used to predict and thus understand hazards. In order to describe the detailed development of a hazard scenario and evaluate ways of mitigation 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models will be required. Even with accurate modelling the communication of risk can be challenging. For this visualization in virtual reality (VR) may be of good help in which the CFD model predictions are presented in a realistic 3D environment with the possibility to include sounds like noise from a high pressure release explosion or fire. In cooperation with Statoil Christian Michelsen Research (CMR) and GexCon have developed the VRSafety application. VRSafety can visualize simulation results from FLACS (and another CFD-tool KFX) in an immersive VR-lab or on a PC. VRSafety can further be used to interactively control and start new CFD-simulations during the sessions. The combination of accurate CFD-modelling visualization and interactive use through VRSafety represents a powerful toolbox for safety training and risk communication to first-responders employees media and other stakeholders. It can also be used for lessons learned sessions studying incidents and accidents and to demonstrate what went wrong and how mitigation could have prevented accidents from happening. This paper will describe possibilities with VRSafety and give examples of use.
Experimental Study on High Pressure Hydrogen Jets Coming Out of Tubes of 0.1–4.2 m in Length
Sep 2011
Publication
Wide use of hydrogen faces significant studies to resolve hydrogen safety issues in industries worldwide. However widely acceptable safety level standards are not achieved in the present situation yet. The present paper deals with hydrogen leaks from a tube to ignite and explode in atmosphere. The experiments using a shock tube are performed to clarify the auto-ignition property of high pressure hydrogen jet spouting from a tube. In order to improve experimental repeatability and reliability the shock tube with a plunger system is applied where the PET diaphragm is ruptured by a needle in order to control a diaphragm burst pressure (hydrogen pressure). As a result it becomes possible to control the diaphragm burst pressure to obtain a local minimum value. The most important result obtained in the preset study is that the minimum diaphragm burst pressure for auto-ignition is found between 1.0 and 1.2 m of tube length using a longer tube than the one used in the previous study. This minimum tube size is not found elsewhere to suggest that the tube length has a limit size for auto-ignition. Furthermore auto-ignition and Mach disk at the tube exit are observed using a high speed camera which is set at the frame speed of 1x105 fps when the ignited hydrogen jet is spouted out the tube.
Sizing, Optimization, and Financial Analysis of a Green Hydrogen Refueling Station in Remote Regions
Jan 2022
Publication
Hydrogen (H2 ) can be a promising energy carrier for decarbonizing the economy and especially the transport sector which is considered as one of the sectors with high carbon emissions due to the extensive use of fossil fuels. H2 is a nontoxic energy carrier that could replace fossil fuels. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) can decrease air pollution and reduce greenhouse gases when H2 is produced from Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and at the same time being accessible through a widespread network of Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRSs). In this study both the sizing of the equipment and financial analysis were performed for an HRS supplied with H2 from the excess electrical energy of a 10 MW wind park. The aim was to determine the optimum configuration of an HRS under the investigation of six different scenarios with various numbers of FCEVs and monthly demands as well as ascertaining the economic viability of each examined scenario. The effect of the number of vehicles that the installation can refuel to balance the initial cost of the investment and the fuel cost in remote regions was investigated. The results showed that a wind-powered HRS could be a viable solution when sized appropriately and H2 can be used as a storage mean for the rejected wind energy. It was concluded that scenarios with low FCEVs penetration have low economic performance since the payback period presented significantly high values.
Experimental Study of the Spontaneous Ignition of Partly Confined Hydrogen Jets
Sep 2011
Publication
The current study addresses the spontaneous ignition of hydrogen jets released into a confined oxidizer environment experimentally. The experiments are conducted in a shock tube where hydrogen gas is shock-accelerated into oxygen across a perforated plate. The operating conditions and hole dimension of the plate were varied in order to identify different flow field and ignition scenarios. Time resolved Schlieren visualization permitted to reconstruct the gasdynamic evolution of the release and different shock interactions. Time resolved self-luminosity records permitted us to record whether ignition was achieved and also to record the dimension of the turbulent mixing layer. The ignition limits determined experimentally in good agreement with the 1D diffusion ignition model proposed by Maxwell and Radulescu. Nevertheless the experiments demonstrated that the mixing layer is two to three orders of magnitude thicker than predicted by molecular diffusion which can be attributed to the observed mixing layer instabilities and shock-mixing layer interactions which provide a much more intense mixing rate than anticipated from previous and current numerical predictions. These observations further clarify why releases through partly confined geometries are more conducive to jet ignition of the jets.
Burning Velocity and Markstein Length Blending Laws for Methane/Air and Hydrogen/Air Blends
Sep 2016
Publication
"Because of the contrasting chemical kinetics of methane and hydrogen combustion the development of blending laws for laminar burning velocity ul and Markstein length for constituent mixtures of CH4/air and H2/air presents a formidable challenge. Guidance is sought through a study of analytical expressions for laminar burning velocity. For the prediction of burning velocities of blends six blending laws were scrutinised. The predictions were compared with the measured burning velocities made by Hu et al. under atmospheric conditions. These covered equivalence ratios ranging from 0.6 to 1.3 and the full fuel range for H2 addition to CH4. This enabled assessments to be made of the predictive accuracy of the six laws. The most successful law is one developed in the course of the present study involving the mass fraction weighting of the product of ul density heat of reaction and specific heat divided by the thermal conductivity of the mixture. There was less success from attempts to obtain a comparably successful blending law for the flame speed Markstein length Lb despite scrutiny of several possibilities. Details are given of two possible approaches one based on the fractional mole concentration of the deficient reactant. A satisfactory empirical law employs mass fraction weighting of the product ulLb.
The Crucial Role of the Lewis Number in Jet Ignition
Sep 2011
Publication
During the early phase of the transient process following a hydrogen leak into the atmosphere a contact surface appears separating hot air from cold hydrogen. Locally the interface is approximately planar. Diffusion occurs potentially leading to ignition. This process was analyzed by Lin˜a´n and Crespo (1976) for Lewis number unity and Lin˜a´n and Williams (1993) for Lewis number less than unity. In addition to conduction these processes are affected by expansion due to the flow which leads to a temperature drop. If chemistry is very temperature-sensitive then the reaction rate peaks close to the hot region where relatively little fuel is present. Indeed the Arrhenius rate drops rapidly as temperature drops much more so than fuel concentration. However the small fuel concentration present close to the airrich side depends crucially upon the balance between fuel diffusion and heat diffusion hence the fuel Lewis number. For Lewis number unity the fuel concentration present due to diffusion is comparable to the rate of consumption due to chemistry. If the Lewis number is less than unity fuel concentration brought in by diffusion is large compared with temperature-controlled chemistry. For a Lewis number greater than unity diffusion is not strong enough to bring in as much fuel as chemistry would be able to burn and combustion is controlled by fuel diffusion. In the former case combustion occurs faster leading to a localized ignition at a finite time determined by the analysis. As long as the temperature drop due to the expansion associated with the multidimensional nature of the jet does not lower significantly the reaction rate up to that point ignition in the jet takes place. For fuel Lewis number greater than unity first the reaction rate is much lower. Second chemistry does not lead to a defined ignition. Eventually expansion will affect the process and ignition does not take place. In summary it appears that the reason why hydrogen is the only fuel for which jet ignition has been observed is a Lewis number effect coupled with a high speed of sound hence a high initial temperature discontinuity.
Safety Assessment of Unignited Hydrogen Discharge from Onboard Storage in Garages with Low Levels of Natural Ventilation
Sep 2011
Publication
This study is driven by the need to understand requirements to safe blow-down of hydrogen onboard storage tanks through a pressure relief device (PRD) inside a garage-like enclosure with low natural ventilation. Current composite tanks for high pressure hydrogen storage have been shown to rupture in 3.5–6.5 min in fire conditions. As a result a large PRD venting area is currently used to release hydrogen from the tank before its catastrophic failure. However even if unignited the release of hydrogen from such PRDs has been shown in our previous studies to result in unacceptable overpressures within the garage capable of causing major damage and possible collapse of the structure. Thus to prevent collapse of the garage in the case of a malfunction of the PRD and an unignited hydrogen release there is a clear need to increase blow-down time by reducing PRD venting area. Calculations of PRD diameter to safely blow-down storage tanks with inventories of 1 5 and 13 kg hydrogen are considered here for a range of garage volumes and natural ventilation expressed in air changes per hour (ACH). The phenomenological model is used to examine the pressure dynamics within a garage with low natural ventilation down to the known minimum of 0.03 ACH. Thus with moderate hydrogen flow rate from the PRD and small vents providing ventilation of the enclosure there will be only outflow from the garage without any air intake from outside. The PRD diameter which ensures that the pressure in the garage does not exceed a value of 20 kPa (accepted in this study as a safe overpressure for civil structures) was calculated for varying garage volumes and natural ventilation (ACH). The results are presented in the form of simple to use engineering nomograms. The conclusion is drawn that PRDs currently available for hydrogen-powered vehicles should be redesigned along with either a change of requirements for the fire resistance rating or innovative design of the onboard storage system as hydrogen-powered vehicles are intended for garage parking. Further research is needed to develop safety strategies and engineering solutions to tackle the problem of fire resistance of onboard storage tanks and requirements to PRD performance. Regulation codes and standards in the field should address this issue.
Determination of Characteristic Parameters for the Thermal Decomposition of Epoxy Resin/carbon Fibre Composites in Cone Calorimeter
Sep 2011
Publication
The thermal degradation of two epoxy resin/carbon fiber composites which differ by their volume fractions in carbon fiber (56 and 59 vol%.) was investigated in cone calorimeter under air atmosphere with a piloted ignition. The external heat flux of cone calorimeter was varied up to 75 kW.m-2 to study the influence of the carbon fiber amount on the thermal decomposition of those composites. Thus main parameters of the thermal decomposition of two different composites were determined such as: mass loss mass loss rate ignition time thermal response parameter ignition temperature critical heat flux thermal inertia and heat of gasification. As a result all the parameters that characterize the thermal resistance of composites are decreased when the carbon fiber volume fraction is increased.
Simulation of Shock-Initiated Ignition
Sep 2009
Publication
The scenario of detonative ignition in shocked mixture is significant because it is a contributor to deflagration to detonation transition for example following shock reflections. However even in one dimension simulation of ignition between a contact surface or a flame and a shock moving into a combustible mixture is difficult because of the singular nature of the initial conditions. Initially as the shock starts moving into reactive mixture the region filled with reactive mixture has zero thickness. On a fixed grid the number of grid points between the shock and the contact surface increases as the shock moves away from the latter. Due to initial lack of resolution in the region of interest staircasing may occur whereby the resulting plots consist of jumps between few values a few grid points and these numerical artifacts are amplified by the chemistry which is very sensitive to temperature leading to unreliable results. The formulation is transformed replacing time and space by time and space over time as the independent variables. This frame of reference corresponds to the self-similar formulation in which the non-reactive problem remains stationary and the initial conditions are well-resolved. Additionally a solution obtained from short time perturbation is used as initial condition at a time still short enough for the perturbation to be very accurate but long enough so that there is sufficient resolution. The numerical solution to the transformed problem is obtained using an essentially non-oscillatory algorithm which is adequate not only for the early part of the process but also for the latter part when chemistry leads to appearance of a shock and eventually a detonation wave is formed. A validation study was performed and the results were compared with the literature for single step Arrhenius chemistry. The method and its implementation were found to be effective. Results are presented for values of activation energy ranging from mild to stiff.
Development of an Italian Fire Prevention Technical Rule For Hydrogen Pipelines
Sep 2011
Publication
This paper summarizes the current results of the theoretical and experimental activity carried out by the Italian Working Group on the fire prevention safety issues in the field of the hydrogen transport in pipelines. From the theoretical point of view a draft document has been produced beginning from the regulations in force on the natural gas pipelines; these have been reviewed corrected and integrated with the instructions suitable to the use of hydrogen. From the experimental point of view an apparatus has been designed and installed at the University of Pisa; this apparatus has allowed the simulation of hydrogen releases from a pipeline with and without ignition of hydrogen-air mixture. The experimental data have helped the completion of the above-mentioned draft document with the instructions about the safety distances. The document has been improved for example pipelines above ground (not buried) are allowed due to the knowledge acquired by means of the experimental campaign. The safety distances related to this kind of piping has been chosen on the base of risk analysis. The work on the text contents is concluded and the document is currently under discussion with the Italian stakeholders involved in the hydrogen applications.
The Status and Prospects of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology in the Philippines
Jan 2022
Publication
As a developing country the Philippines must balance its rapid industrialization efforts with the realities and consequences of climate change on the country. A feasible option to achieve this is increasing the share of renewables in power generation coupled with energy storage technology. This paper examines the present situation and opportunities for development of hydrogen and fuel cell technology in the Philippines as promising alternatives with proven applications in niche energy demand sectors aside from renewables integration. Although the Philippines is considered a latecomer there is significant renewable resource potential available local experts and trained talents and enabling legislations in the country that provide opportunities in harnessing fuel cell technologies for the transition to energy self-sufficient and low-carbon society. Current advancement of the technology in the country is limited to an initial 5-year roadmap focused on component development from cheap and local materials. Provisions for large-scale hydrogen infrastructure have not yet been realized which is comparable to the early stages of development in other countries that are also pursuing fuel cell technology. Strong industry-academe partnerships should be pursued through a specific legislated agency to ensure future development of this technology for the country’s benefit. Lastly applications in distributed power generation poised to be a lucrative direction as demonstration and validation with other potential uses such as transportation remains a challenge.
Risk Reduction Potential of Accident Prevention and Mitigation Features
Sep 2011
Publication
Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) can help to establish a set of design and operational requirements in hydrogen codes and standards that will ensure safe operation of hydrogen facilities. By analyzing a complete set of possible accidents in a QRA the risk drivers for these facilities can be identified. Accident prevention and mitigation features can then be analyzed to determine which are the most effective in addressing these risk drivers and thus reduce the risk from possible accidents. Accident prevention features/methods such as proper material selection and preventative maintenance are included in the design and operation of facilities. Accident mitigation features are included to reduce or terminate the potential consequences from unintended releases of hydrogen. Mitigation features can be either passive or active in nature. Passive features do not require any component to function in order to prevent or mitigate a hydrogen release. Examples of passive mitigation features include the use of separation distances barriers and flow limiting orifices. Active mitigation features initiate when specific conditions occur during an accident in order to terminate an accident or reduce its consequences. Examples of active mitigation features include detection and isolation systems fire suppression systems and purging systems. A concept being pursued by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) hydrogen standard development is to take credit for prevention and mitigation features as a means to reduce separation distances at hydrogen facilities. By utilizing other mitigation features the risk from accidents can be decreased and risk-informed separation distances can be reduced. This paper presents some preliminary QRA results where the risk reduction potential for several active and passive mitigation features was evaluated. These measures include automatic leak detection and isolation systems the use of flow limiting orifices and the use of barriers. Reducing the number of risk-significant components in a system was also evaluated as an accident prevention method. In addition the potential reduction in separation distances if such measures were incorporated at a facility was also determined.
Green H2 Production by Water Electrolysis Using Cation Exchange Membrane: Insights on Activation and Ohmic Polarization Phenomena
Dec 2021
Publication
Low-temperature electrolysis by using polymer electrolyte membranes (PEM) can play an important role in hydrogen energy transition. This work presents a study on the performance of a proton exchange membrane in the water electrolysis process at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. In the perspective of applications that need a device with small volume and low weight a miniaturized electrolysis cell with a 36 cm2 active area of PEM over a total surface area of 76 cm2 of the device was used. H2 and O2 production rates electrical power energy efficiency Faradaic efficiency and polarization curves were determined for all experiments. The effects of different parameters such as clamping pressure and materials of the electrodes on polarization phenomena were studied. The PEM used was a catalyst-coated membrane (Ir-Pt-Nafion™ 117 CCM). The maximum H2 production was about 0.02 g min−1 with a current density of 1.1 A cm−2 and a current power about 280 W. Clamping pressure and the type of electrode materials strongly influence the activation and ohmic polarization phenomena. High clamping pressure and electrodes in titanium compared to carbon electrodes improve the cell performance and this results in lower ohmic and activation resistances.
Safety Cost of a Large Scale Hydrogen System for Photovoltaic Energy Regulation
Sep 2011
Publication
Hydrogen can be used as a buffer for storing intermittent electricity produced by solar plants and/or wind farms. The MYRTE project in Corsica France aims to operate and test a large scale hydrogen facility for regulating the electricity produced by a 560 kWp photovoltaic plant.
Due to the large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen produced and stored (respectively 333 kg and 2654 kg) this installation faces safety issues and safety regulations constraints that can lead to extra costs. These extra costs may concern detectors monitoring barrier equipments that have to be taken into account for evaluating the system‘s total cost.
Relying on the MYRTE example that is an R&D platform the present work consists in listing the whole environmental and safety regulations to be applied in France on both Hydrogen and Oxygen production and storage. A methodology has been developed [1] [2] for evaluating safety extra costs. This methodology takes into account various hydrogen storage technologies (gaseous and solid state) and is applicable to other ways of storage (batteries etc.) to compare them. Results of this work based on a forecast of the operating platform over 20 years can be used to extrapolate and/or optimize future safety costs of next large scale hydrogen systems for further PV or wind energy storage applications.
Due to the large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen produced and stored (respectively 333 kg and 2654 kg) this installation faces safety issues and safety regulations constraints that can lead to extra costs. These extra costs may concern detectors monitoring barrier equipments that have to be taken into account for evaluating the system‘s total cost.
Relying on the MYRTE example that is an R&D platform the present work consists in listing the whole environmental and safety regulations to be applied in France on both Hydrogen and Oxygen production and storage. A methodology has been developed [1] [2] for evaluating safety extra costs. This methodology takes into account various hydrogen storage technologies (gaseous and solid state) and is applicable to other ways of storage (batteries etc.) to compare them. Results of this work based on a forecast of the operating platform over 20 years can be used to extrapolate and/or optimize future safety costs of next large scale hydrogen systems for further PV or wind energy storage applications.
Incident Reporting- Learning from Experience
Sep 2007
Publication
Experience makes a superior teacher. Sharing the details surrounding safety events is one of the best ways to help prevent their recurrence elsewhere. This approach requires an open non-punitive environment to achieve broad benefits. The Hydrogen Incident Reporting Tool (www.h2incidents.org) is intended to facilitate the sharing of lessons learned and other relevant information gained from actual experiences using and working with hydrogen and hydrogen systems. Its intended audience includes those involved in virtually any aspect of hydrogen technology systems and use with an emphasis towards energy and transportation applications. The database contains records of safety events both publicly available and/or voluntarily submitted. Typical records contain a general description of the occurrence contributing factors equipment involved and some detailing of consequences and changes that have been subsequently implemented to prevent recurrence of similar events in the future. The voluntary and confidential nature and other characteristics surrounding the database mean that any analysis of apparent trends in its contents cannot be considered statistically valid for a universal population. A large portion of reported incidents have occurred in a laboratory setting due to the typical background of the reporting projects for example. Yet some interesting trends are becoming apparent even at this early stage of the database’s existence and general lessons can already be taken away from these experiences. This paper discusses the database and a few trends that have already become apparent for the reported incidents. Anticipated future uses of this information are also described. This paper is intended to encourage wider participation and usage of the incidents reporting database and to promote the safety benefits offered by its contents.
Experimental Investigation of Flame and Pressure Dynamics after Spontaneous Ignition in Tube Geometry
Sep 2013
Publication
Spontaneous ignition processes due to high pressure hydrogen releases into air are known phenomena. The sudden expansion of pressurized hydrogen into a pipe filled with ambient air can lead to a spontaneous ignition with a jet fire. This paper presents results of an experimental investigation of the visible flame propagation and pressure measurements in 4 mm extension tubes of up to 1 m length attached to a bulk vessel by a rupture disc. Transparent glass tubes for visual observation and shock wave pressure sensors are used in this study. The effect of the extension tube length on the development of a stable jet fire after a spontaneous ignition is discussed.
Numerical Study of Spontaneous Ignition of Pressurized Hydrogen Release into Air
Sep 2007
Publication
Numerical simulations have been carried out for spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen release directly into air. Results showed a possible mechanism for spontaneous ignition due to molecular diffusion. To accurately calculate the molecular transport of species momentum and energy in a multi-component gaseous mixture a mixture-averaged multi-component approach was employed in which thermal diffusion is accounted for. To reduce false numerical diffusion extremely fine meshes were used along with the ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian) method. The ALE method was employed to track the moving contact surface with moving clustered grids. A detailed kinetic scheme with 21 elementary steps and 8 reactive chemical species was implemented for combustion chemistry. The scheme gives due consideration to third body reactions and reaction-rate pressure-dependant “fall-off” behavior. The autoignition of pressurized hydrogen release was previously observed in laboratory tests [2-3] and suspected as possible cause of some accidents. The present numerical study successfully captured this scenario. Autoignition was predicted to first take place at the tip region of the hydrogen-air contact surface due to mass and energy exchange between low temperature hydrogen and shock-heated air at the contact surface through molecular diffusion. The initial flame thickness is extremely thin due to the limiting molecular diffusion. The combustion region extends downward along the contact surface as it moves downstream. As the hydrogen jet developed downstream the front contact surface tends to be distorted by the developed flow of the air. Turbulence plays an important role in mixing at the region of the distorted contact surface. This is thought to be a major factor for the initial laminar flame to turn into a final stable turbulent flame.
Ignition of Flammable Hydrogen & Air Mixtures by Controlled Glancing Impacts in Nuclear Waste Decommissioning
Sep 2013
Publication
Conditions are examined under which mechanical stimuli produced by striking controlled blows can result in sparking and ignition of hydrogen in air mixtures. The investigation principally concerns magnesium thermite reaction as the ignition source and focuses on the conditions and thermomechanical parameters that are involved in determining the probability of ignition. It is concluded that the notion of using the kinetic energy of impact as the main criterion in determining whether an ignition event is likely or not is much less useful than considering the parameters which determine the maximum temperature produced in a mechanical stimuli event. The most influential parameter in determining ignition frequency or probability is the velocity of sliding movement during mechanical stimuli. It is also clear that the kinetic energy of a moving hammer head is of lesser importance than the normal force which is applied during contact. This explains the apparent discrepancy in previous studies between the minimum kinetic energy thought to be necessary to allow thermite sparking and gas ignition to occur with drop weight impacts and glancing blow impacts. In any analysis of the likelihood of mechanical stimuli to cause ignition the maximum surface temperature generated should be determined and considered in relation to the temperatures that would be required to initiate hot surface reactions sufficient to cause sparking and ignition.
Methanol Reforming Processes for Fuel Cell Applications
Dec 2021
Publication
Hydrogen production through methanol reforming processes has been stimulated over the years due to increasing interest in fuel cell technology and clean energy production. Among different types of methanol reforming the steam reforming of methanol has attracted great interest as reformate gas stream where high concentration of hydrogen is produced with a negligible amount of carbon monoxide. In this review recent progress of the main reforming processes of methanol towards hydrogen production is summarized. Different catalytic systems are reviewed for the steam reforming of methanol: mainly copper- and group 8–10-based catalysts highlighting the catalytic key properties while the promoting effect of the latter group in copper activity and selectivity is also discussed. The effect of different preparation methods different promoters/stabilizers and the formation mechanism is analyzed. Moreover the integration of methanol steam reforming process and the high temperature–polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (HT-PEMFCs) for the development of clean energy production is discussed.
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