Netherlands

Progressing limits on pollutant emissions oblige ship owners to reduce the environmental impact of their operations. Fuel cells may provide a suitable solution since they are fuel efficient while they emit few hazardous compounds. Various choices can be made with regard to the type of fuel cell system and logistic fuel and it is unclear which have the best prospects for maritime application. An overview of fuel cell types and fuel processing equipment is presented and maritime fuel cell application is reviewed with regard to efficiency gravimetric and volumetric density dynamic behaviour environmental impact safety and economics. It is shown that low temperature fuel cells using liquefied hydrogen provide a compact solution for ships with a refuelling interval up to a tens of hours but may result in total system sizes up to five times larger than high temperature fuel cells and more energy dense fuels for vessels with longer mission requirements. The expanding infrastructure of liquefied natural gas and development state of natural gas-fuelled fuel cell systems can facilitate the introduction of gaseous fuels and fuel cells on ships. Fuel cell combined cycles hybridisation with auxiliary electricity storage systems and redundancy improvements are identified as topics for further study

Photoelectrochemical splitting of water is potentially a sustainable and affordable solution to produce hydrogen from sun light. Given the infancy stage of technology development it is important to compare the different experimental concepts and identify the most promising routes. The performance of photoelectrochemical devices is typically measured and reported under ideal irradiation conditions i.e. 1 sun. However real-life operating conditions are very different and are varying in time according to daily and seasonal cycles. In this work we present an equivalent circuit model for computing the steady state performance of photoelectrochemical cells. The model allows for a computationally efficient yet precise prediction of the system performance and a comparison of different devices working in real operating conditions. To this end five different photo-electrochemical devices are modeled using experimental results from literature. The calculated performance shows good agreement with experimental data of the different devices. Furthermore the model is extended to include the effect of illumination and tilt angle on the hydrogen production efficiency. The resulting model is used to compare the devices for different locations with high and low average illumination and different tilt angles. The results show that including real illumination data has a considerable impact on the efficiency of the PV-EC device. The yearly average solar-to-hydrogen efficiency is significantly lower than the ideal one. Moreover it is dependent on the tilt angle whose optimal value for European-like latitude is around 40. Notably we also show that the most performing device through the whole year might not necessarily be the one with highest sun-to-hydrogen efficiency for one-sun illumination.

Technology safety represents a key enabling factor for the commercial use of hydrogen within the automotive industry. In the last years considerable pre-normative and normative research effort has produced regulations at national European and global level as well as international standards. Their validation is at the moment on going internationally. Additional research is required to improve this regulatory and standardization frame which is also expected to have a beneficial effect on cost and product optimization. The present paper addresses results related to the experimental assessment and modeling of safety performance of high pressure onboard storage. To simulate the lifetime of onboard hydrogen tanks commercial tanks have been subjected to filling-emptying cycles encompassing a fast-filling phase as prescribed by the European regulation on type-approval of hydrogen vehicles. The local temperature history inside the tanks has been measured and compared with the temperature outside at the tank metallic bosses which is the measurement location identified by the regulation. Experimental activities are complemented by computational fluid-dynamics (CFD) modeling of the fast-filling process by means of a numerical model previously validated. The outcome of these activities is a set of scientifically based data which will serve as input to future regulations and standards improvement.

In the transition from fossil to renewable energy the energy system should become clean while remaining reliable and affordable. Because of the intermittent nature of both renewable energy production and energy demand an integrated system approach is required that includes energy conversion and storage. We propose a concept for a neighbourhood where locally produced renewable energy is partly converted and stored in the form of heat and hydrogen accompanied by rainwater collection storage purification and use (Power-to-H3). A model is developed to create an energy balance and perform a techno-economic analysis including an analysis of the avoided costs within the concept. The results show that a solar park of 8.7 MWp combined with rainwater collection and solar panels on roofs can supply 900 houses over the year with heat (20 TJ) via an underground heat storage system as well as with almost half of their water demand (36000m3) and 540 hydrogen electric vehicles can be supplied with hydrogen (90 tonnes). The production costs for both hydrogen (8.7 €/kg) and heat (26 €/GJ) are below the current end user selling price in the Netherlands (10 €/kg and 34 €/GJ) making the system affordable. When taking avoided costs into account the prices could decrease with 20–26% while at the same time avoiding 3600 tonnes of CO₂ a year. These results make clear that it is possible to provide a neighbourhood with all these different utilities completely based on solar power and rainwater in a reliable affordable and clean way.

Hydrogen represents a versatile energy carrier with net zero end use emissions. Power-to-Liquid (PtL) includes the combination of hydrogen with CO2 to produce liquid fuels and satisfy mostly transport demand. This study assesses the role of these pathways across scenarios that achieve 80–95% CO₂ reduction by 2050 (vs. 1990) using the JRC-EU-TIMES model. The gaps in the literature covered in this study include a broader spatial coverage (EU28+) and hydrogen use in all sectors (beyond transport). The large uncertainty in the possible evolution of the energy system has been tackled with an extensive sensitivity analysis. 15 parameters were varied to produce more than 50 scenarios. Results indicate that parameters with the largest influence are the CO₂ target the availability of CO₂ underground storage and the biomass potential.

Hydrogen demand increases from 7 mtpa today to 20–120 mtpa (2.4–14.4 EJ/yr) mainly used for PtL (up to 70 mtpa) transport (up to 40 mtpa) and industry (25 mtpa). Only when CO₂ storage was not possible due to a political ban or social acceptance issues was electrolysis the main hydrogen production route (90% share) and CO₂ use for PtL became attractive. Otherwise hydrogen was produced through gas reforming with CO₂ capture and the preferred CO₂ sink was underground. Hydrogen and PtL contribute to energy security and independence allowing to reduce energy related import cost from 420 bln€/yr today to 350 or 50 bln€/yr for 95% CO₂ reduction with and without CO₂ storage. Development of electrolyzers fuel cells and fuel synthesis should continue to ensure these technologies are ready when needed. Results from this study should be complemented with studies with higher spatial and temporal resolution. Scenarios with global trading of hydrogen and potential import to the EU were not included.

This paper analyzes the economic potential of Power-to-Gas (PtG) as a source of flexibility in electricity markets with both high shares of renewables and high external demand for hydrogen. The contribution of this paper is that it develops and applies a short-term (hourly) partial equilibrium model of integrated electricity and hydrogen markets including markets for green certificates while using a welfare-economic framework to assess the market outcomes. We find that strongly increasing the share of renewable electricity makes electricity prices much more volatile while the presence of PtG reduces this price volatility. However a large demand for hydrogen from outside the electricity sector reduces the impact of PtG on the volatility of electricity prices. In a scenario with a high external hydrogen demand PtG can deliver positive benefits for some groups as it can provide hydrogen at lower costs than Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) during hours when electricity prices are low but these positive welfare effects are outweighed by the fixed costs of PtG assets plus the costs of replacing a less expensive energy carrier (natural gas) with a more expensive one (hydrogen). Investments in PtG are profitable from a social-welfare perspective when the induced reduction in carbon emissions is valued at 150–750 euro/ton. Hence at lower carbon prices PtG can only become a valuable provider of flexibility when installation costs are significantly reduced and conversion efficiencies of electrolysers increased.

Guidance on Sensor Placement was identified as the top research priority for hydrogen sensors at the 2018 HySafe Research Priority Workshop on hydrogen safety in the category Mitigation Sensors Hazard Prevention and Risk Reduction. This paper discusses the initial steps (Phase 1) to develop such guidance for mechanically ventilated enclosures. This work was initiated as an international collaborative effort to respond to emerging market needs related to the design and deployment equipment for hydrogen infrastructure that is often installed in individual equipment cabinets or ventilated enclosures. The ultimate objective of this effort is to develop guidance for an optimal sensor placement such that when integrated into a facility design and operation will allow earlier detection at lower levels of incipient leaks leading to significant hazard reduction. Reliable and consistent early warning of hydrogen leaks will allow for the risk mitigation by reducing or even eliminating the probability of escalation of small leaks into large and uncontrolled events. To address this issue a study of a real-world mechanically ventilated enclosure containing GH2 equipment was conducted where CFD modelling of the hydrogen dispersion (performed by AVT and UQTR and independently by the JRC) was validated by the NREL Sensor laboratory using a Hydrogen Wide Area Monitor (HyWAM) consisting of a 10-point gas and temperature measurement analyzer. In the release test helium was used as a hydrogen surrogate. Expansion of indoor releases to other larger facilities (including parking structures vehicle maintenance facilities and potentially tunnels) and incorporation into QRA tools such as HyRAM is planned for Phase 2. It is anticipated that results of this work will be used to inform national and international standards such as NFPA 2 Hydrogen Technologies Code Canadian Hydrogen Installation Code (CHIC) and relevant ISO/TC 197 and CEN documents.

Research to date has identified cost and lack of support from stakeholders as two key barriers to the development of a carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) industry that is capable of effectively mitigating climate change. This paper responds to these challenges through systematic evaluation of the research and development process for the Acorn CCS project a project designed to develop a scalable full-chain CCS project on the north-east coast of the UK. Through assessment of Acorn's publicly-available outputs we identify strategies which may help to enhance the viability of early-stage CCS projects. Initial capital costs can be minimised by infrastructure re-use particularly pipelines and by re-use of data describing the subsurface acquired during oil and gas exploration activity. Also development of the project in separate stages of activity (e.g. different phases of infrastructure re-use and investment into new infrastructure) enables cost reduction for future build-out phases. Additionally engagement of regional-level policy makers may help to build stakeholder support by situating CCS within regional decarbonisation narratives. We argue that these insights may be translated to general objectives for any CCS project sharing similar characteristics such as legacy infrastructure industrial clusters and an involved stakeholder-base that is engaged with the fossil fuel industry.

The deployment of diverse energy storage technologies with the combination of daily weekly and seasonal storage dynamics allows for the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions per unit energy provided. In particular the production storage and re-utilization of hydrogen starting from renewable energy has proven to be one of the most promising solutions for offsetting seasonal mismatch between energy generation and consumption. A realistic possibility for large-scale hydrogen storage suitable for long-term storage dynamics is presented by salt caverns. In this contribution we provide a framework for modelling underground hydrogen storage with a focus on salt caverns and we evaluate its potential for reducing the CO₂ emissions within an integrated energy systems context. To this end we develop a first-principle model which accounts for the transport phenomena within the rock and describes the dynamics of the stored energy when injecting and withdrawing hydrogen. Then we derive a linear reduced order model that can be used for mixed-integer linear program optimization while retaining an accurate description of the storage dynamics under a variety of operating conditions. Using this new framework we determine the minimum-emissions design and operation of a multi-energy system with H₂ storage. Ultimately we assess the potential of hydrogen storage for reducing CO₂ emissions when different capacities for renewable energy production and energy storage are available mapping emissions regions on a plane defined by storage capacity and renewable generation. We extend the analysis for solar- and wind-based energy generation and for different energy demands representing typical profiles of electrical and thermal demands and different CO₂ emissions associated with the electric grid.

The present review provides a catalogue of relevant renewable energy (RE) technologies currently available (regarding the 2030 scope) and to be available in the transition towards 2050 for the decarbonisation of Energy Intensive Industries (EIIs). RE solutions have been classified into technologies based on the use of renewable electricity and those used to produce heat for multiple industrial processes. Electrification will be key thanks to the gradual decrease in renewable power prices and the conversion of natural-gas-dependent processes. Industrial processes that are not eligible for electrification will still need a form of renewable heat. Among them the following have been identified: concentrating solar power heat pumps and geothermal energy. These can supply a broad range of needed temperatures. Biomass will be a key element not only in the decarbonisation of conventional combustion systems but also as a biofuel feedstock. Biomethane and green hydrogen are considered essential. Biomethane can allow a straightforward transition from fossil-based natural gas to renewable gas. Green hydrogen production technologies will be required to increase their maturity and availability in Europe (EU). EIIs’ decarbonisation will occur through the progressive use of an energy mix that allows EU industrial sectors to remain competitive on a global scale. Each industrial sector will require specific renewable energy solutions especially the top greenhouse gas-emitting industries. This analysis has also been conceived as a starting point for discussions with potential decision makers to facilitate a more rapid transition of EIIs to full decarbonisation.

The project “Towards a Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure for Vehicles” (THRIVE) aimed at the determination of conditions to stimulate the building of a sustainable infrastructure for hydrogen as a car fuel in The Netherlands. Economic scenarios were constructed for the development of such an infrastructure for the next one to four decades. The eventual horizon will require the erection of a few hundred to more than a thousand hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) in The Netherlands. The risk acceptability policy in The Netherlands implemented in the External Safety Establishments decree requires the assessment and management of safety risks imposed on the public by car fuelling stations. In the past a risk-informed policy has been developed for the large scale introduction of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a car fuel and a similar policy will also be required if hydrogen is introduced in the public domain. A risk assessment methodology dedicated to cope with accident scenarios relevant for hydrogen applications is to be developed. Within the THRIVE project a demo risk assessment was conducted for the possible implementation of an HRS within an existing station for conventional fuels. The studied station is located in an urban area occupied with housing and commercial activities. The HRS is based on delivery and on-site storage of liquid hydrogen and dispensing of high pressure gaseous hydrogen into vehicles. The main challenges in the risk assessment were in the modelling of release and dispersion of liquid hydrogen. Definition of initial conditions for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling to evaluate dispersion of a cold hydrogen air mixture appears rather complex and is not always fully understood. The modelling assumptions in the initial conditions determine to a large extent the likelihood and severity of potential explosion effects. The paper shows the results of the investigation and the sensitivity to the basic assumptions in the model input.

Certification of hydrogen sensors to meet standards often prescribes using large-volume test chambers. However feedback from stakeholders such as sensor manufacturers and end-users indicates that chamber test methods are often viewed as too slow and expensive for routine assessment. Flow-through test methods are potentially an efficient and cost-effective alternative for sensor performance assessment. A large number of sensors can be simultaneously tested in series or in parallel with an appropriate flow-through test fixture. The recent development of sensors with response times of less than 1s mandates improvements in equipment and methodology to properly capture the performance of this new generation of fast sensors; flow methods are a viable approach for accurate response and recovery time determinations but there are potential drawbacks. According to ISO 26142 flow-through test methods may not properly simulate ambient applications. In chamber test methods gas transport to the sensor is dominated by diffusion which is viewed by some users as mimicking deployment in rooms and other confined spaces. Conversely in flow-through methods forced flow transports the gas to the sensing element. The advective flow dynamics may induce changes in the sensor behaviour relative to the quasi-quiescent condition that may prevail in chamber test methods. The aim of the current activity in the JRC and NREL sensor laboratories is to develop a validated flow-through apparatus and methods for hydrogen sensor performance testing. In addition to minimizing the impact on sensor behaviour induced by differences in flow dynamics challenges associated with flow-through methods include the ability to control environmental parameters (humidity pressure and temperature) during the test and changes in the test gas composition induced by chemical reactions with upstream sensors. Guidelines on flow-through test apparatus design and protocols for the evaluation of hydrogen sensor performance have been developed. Various commercial sensor platforms (e.g. thermal conductivity catalytic and metal semiconductor) were used to demonstrate the advantages and issues with the flow-through methodology.

The study analyses the role of hydrogen in the National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) and identifies and highlights opportunities for hydrogen technologies to contribute to effective and efficient achievement of the 2030 climate and energy targets of the EU and its Member States.<br/>The study focuses on the potential and opportunities of renewable hydrogen produced by electrolysers using renewable electricity and of low-carbon hydrogen produced by steam methane reforming combined with CCS. The opportunities for and impacts of hydrogen deployment are assessed and summarised in individual fiches per Member State.<br/>The study analyses to what extent policy measures and industrial initiatives are already being taken to facilitate large-scale implementation of hydrogen in the current and the next decades. The study concludes by determining the CO2 reduction potential beyond what is foreseen in the NECPs through hydrogen energy technologies estimating the reduction of fossil fuel imports and reliance the prospective cost and the value added and jobs created. National teams working on decarbonisation roadmaps and updates of the NECPs are welcome to consider the opportunities and benefits of hydrogen deployment identified in this study.

Liquid hydrogen carriers are considered to be attractive hydrogen storage options because of their ease of integration into existing chemical transportation infrastructures when compared with liquid or compressed hydrogen. The development of such carriers forms part of the work of the International Energy Agency Task 32: Hydrogen-Based Energy Storage. Here we report the state-of-the-art for ammonia-based and liquid organic hydrogen carriers with a particular focus on the challenge of ensuring easily regenerable high-density hydrogen storage.

A rapid transition towards a CO2-neutral steel industry is required to limit climate change. Such a transition raises questions of justice as it entails positive and negative impacts unevenly distributed across societal stakeholders. To enable stakeholders to address such concerns this paper assesses the justice implications of three options that reduce emissions: CO2 capture and storage (CCS) on steel (up to 70%) bio-based steelmaking (up to 50%) and green hydrogen-based steel production (up to 100%). We select justice indicators from the energy climate labour and environmental justice literature and assess these indicators qualitatively for each of the technological routes based on literature and desk research. We find context-dependent differences in justness between the different technological routes. The impact on stakeholders varies across regions. There are justice concerns for local communities because of economic dependence on and environmental impact of the industry. Communities elsewhere are impacted through the siting of infrastructure and feedstock production. CCS and bio-based steelmaking routes can help retain industry and associated economic benefits on location while hydrogen-based steelmaking may deal better with environmental concerns. We conclude that besides techno-economic and environmental information transparency on sector-specific justice implications of transforming steel industries is essential for decision-making on technological routes

The Philippines is exploring different alternative sources of energy to make the country less dependent on imported fossil fuels and to reduce significantly the country's CO2 emissions. Given the abundance of renewable energy potential in the country green hydrogen from renewables is a promising fuel because it can be utilized as an energy carrier and can provide a source of clean and sustainable energy with no emissions. This paper aims to review the prospects and challenges for the potential use of green hydrogen in several production and utilization pathways in the Philippines. The study identified green hydrogen production routes from available renewable energy sources in the country including geothermal hydropower wind solar biomass and ocean. Opportunities for several utilization pathways include transportation industry utility and energy storage. From the analysis this study proposes a roadmap for a green hydrogen economy in the country by 2050 divided into three phases: green hydrogen as industrial feedstock green hydrogen as fuel cell technology and commercialization of green hydrogen. On the other hand the analysis identified several challenges including technical economic and social aspects as well as the corresponding policy implications for the realization of a green hydrogen economy that can be applied in the Philippines and other developing countries.

With the advent of large-scale application of hydrogen transportation becomes crucial. Reusing the existing natural gas transmission system could serve as catalyst for the future hydrogen economy. However a risk analysis of hydrogen transmission in existing pipelines is essential for the deployment of the new energy carrier. This paper focuses on the individual risk (IR) associated with a hazardous hydrogen jet fire and compares it with the natural gas case. The risk analysis adopts a detailed flame model and state of the art computational software to provide an enhanced physical description of flame characteristics.<br/>This analysis concludes that hydrogen jet fires yield lower lethality levels that decrease faster with distance than natural gas jet fires. Consequently for large pipelines hydrogen transmission is accompanied by significant lower IR. Howbeit ignition effects increasingly dominate the IR for decreasing pipeline diameters and cause hydrogen transmission to yield increased IR in the vicinity of the pipeline when compared to natural gas.

In 1986 the Dutch national fuel cell program started. Fuel cells were developed under the paradigm of replacing conventional technology. Coal-fired power plants were to be replaced by large-scale MCFC power plants fuelled by hydrogen in a full-scale future hydrogen economy. With today's knowledge we will reflect on these and other ideas with respect to high temperature fuel cell development including the choice for the type of high temperature fuel cell. It is explained that based on thermodynamics proton conducting fuel cells would have been a better choice and the direct carbon fuel cell even more so with electrochemical gasification of carbon as the ultimate step. The specific characteristics of fuel cells and multisource multiproduct systems were not considered whereas we understand now that these can provide huge driving forces for the implementation of fuel cells compared to just replacing conventional combined heat and power production technology.

A review of more than 60 studies (plus m4ore than 65 studies on P2G) on power and energy models based on simulation and optimization was done. Based on these for power systems with up to 95% renewables the electricity storage size is found to be below 1.5% of the annual demand (in energy terms). While for 100% renewables energy systems (power heat mobility) it can remain below 6% of the annual energy demand. Combination of sectors and diverting the electricity to another sector can play a large role in reducing the storage size. From the potential alternatives to satisfy this demand pumped hydro storage (PHS) global potential is not enough and new technologies with a higher energy density are needed. Hydrogen with more than 250 times the energy density of PHS is a potential option to satisfy the storage need. However changes needed in infrastructure to deal with high hydrogen content and the suitability of salt caverns for its storage can pose limitations for this technology. Power to Gas (P2G) arises as possible alternative overcoming both the facilities and the energy density issues. The global storage requirement would represent only 2% of the global annual natural gas production or 10% of the gas storage facilities (in energy equivalent). The more options considered to deal with intermittent sources the lower the storage requirement will be. Therefore future studies aiming to quantify storage needs should focus on the entire energy system including technology vectors (e.g. Power to Heat Liquid Gas Chemicals) to avoid overestimating the amount of storage needed.

Hydrogen fuelled vehicles can play a key role in the decarbonisation of transport and reducing emissions. To ensure the durability of fuel cells a specification has been developed (ISO 14687) setting upper limits to the amount fraction of a series of impurities. Demonstrating conformity with this standard requires demonstrating by measurement that the actual levels of the impurities are below the thresholds. Currently the industry is unable to do so for measurement standards and sensitive dedicated analytical methods are lacking. In this work we report on the development of such measurement standards and methods for four reactive components: formaldehyde formic acid hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride. The primary measurement standard is based on permeation and the analytical methods on highly sensitive and selective laser-based spectroscopic techniques. Relative expanded uncertainties at the ISO 14687 threshold level in hydrogen of 4% (formaldehyde) 8% (formic acid) 5% (hydrogen chloride) and 8% (hydrogen fluoride) have been achieved.

This paper presents two different scenarios for the energy system of the Netherlands that achieve the Dutch government’s national target of near net-zero greenhouse gas emissions in 2050. Using the system optimisation model OPERA the authors have analysed the technology sector and cost implications of the assumptions underlying these scenarios. While the roles of a number of key energy technology and emission mitigation options are strongly dependent on the scenario and cost assumptions the analysis yields several common elements that appear in both scenarios and that consistently appear under differing cost assumptions. For example one of the main options for the decarbonisation of the Dutch energy system is electrification of energy use in end-use sectors and for the production of renewable hydrogen with electrolysers. As a result the level of electricity generation in 2050 will be three to four times higher than present generation levels. Ultimately renewable energy – particularly from wind turbines and solar panels – is projected to account for the vast majority of electricity generation around 99% in 2050. Imbalances between supply and demand resulting from this variable renewable electricity production can be managed via flexibility options including demand response and energy storage. Hydrogen also becomes an important energy carrier notably for transportation and in industry. If import prices are lower than costs of domestic production from natural gas with CCS or through electrolysis from renewable electricity (2.4–2.7 €/kgH2) the use of hydrogen increases especially in the built environment.

A combined density functional theory and molecular dynamics approach is employed to study modifications of graphene at atomistic level for better H2 storage. The study reveals H₂ desorption from hydrogenated defective graphene structure V₂₂₂ to be exothermic. H₂ adsorption and desorption processes are found to be more reversible for V₂₂₂ as compared to pristine graphene. Our study shows that V₂₂₂ undergoes brittle fracture under tensile loading similar to the case of pristine graphene. The tensile strength of V₂₂₂ shows slight reduction with respect to their pristine counterpart which is attributed to the transition of sp2 to sp3-like hybridization. The study also shows that the V₂₂₂ structure is mechanically more stable than the defective graphene structure without chemically adsorbed hydrogen atoms. The current fundamental study thus reveals the efficient recovery mechanism of adsorbed hydrogen from V₂₂₂ and paves the way for the engineering of structural defects in graphene for H₂ storage.

The direct hydrogenation of CO₂ to dimethyl ether (DME) is a promising technology for CO₂ valorisation. In this work a 1D phenomenological reactor model is developed to evaluate and optimize the performance of a membrane reactor for this conversion otherwise limited by thermodynamic equilibrium and temperature gradients. The co-current circulation of a sweep gas stream through the permeation zone promotes both water and heat removal from the reaction zone thus increasing overall DME yield (from 44% to 64%). The membrane properties in terms of water permeability (i.e. 4·10⁻⁷ mol·Pa⁻¹m−2s⁻¹) and selectivity (i.e. 50 towards H₂ 30 towards CO₂ and CO 10 towards methanol) for optimal reactor performance have been determined considering for the first time non-ideal separation and non-isothermal operation. Thus this work sheds light into suitable membrane materials for this applications. Then the non-isothermal performance of the membrane reactor was analysed as a function of the process parameters (i.e. the sweep gas to feed flow ratio the gradient of total pressure across the membrane the inlet temperature to the reaction and permeation zone and the feed composition). Owing to its ability to remove 96% of the water produced in this reaction the proposed membrane reactor outperforms a conventional packed bed for the same application (i.e. with 36% and 46% improvement in CO₂ conversion and DME yield respectively). The results of this work demonstrate the potential of the membrane reactor to make the CO₂ conversion to DME a feasible process.

Aviation is the backbone of our modern society. In 2019 around 4.5 billion passengers travelled through the air. However at the same time aviation was also responsible for around 5% of anthropogenic causes of global warming. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the aviation sector in the short term is clearly very high but the long-term effects are still unknown. However with the increase in global GDP the number of travelers is expected to increase between three- to four-fold by the middle of this century. While other sectors of transportation are making steady progress in decarbonizing aviation is falling behind. This paper explores some of the various options for energy carriers in aviation and particularly highlights the possibilities and challenges of using cryogenic fuels/energy carriers such as liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquefied natural gas (LNG).

In order to maximise European national and regional research and innovation potential the European Union is investing in these fields through different funding mechanisms such as the ESIF or H2020 programme. This investment plan is part of the European 2020 strategy where the concept of Smart Specialisation is also included.<br/>Smart Specialisation is an innovation policy concept designed to promote the efficient and effective use of public investment in regional innovation in order to achieve economic growth. The Smart Specialisation Platform was created to support this concept by assisting regions and Member States in developing implementing and reviewing their research and innovation Smart Specialisation strategies.<br/>The Smart Specialisation Platform comprises several thematic platforms. The thematic Smart Specialisation Platform on energy (S3PEnergy) is a joint initiative of three European Commission services: DG REGIO DG ENER and the Joint Research Centre (JRC). The main objective of the S3PEnergy is to support the optimal and effective uptake of the Cohesion Policy funds for energy and to better align energy innovation activities at national local and regional level through the identification of the technologies and innovative solutions that support in the most cost-effective way the EU energy policy priorities.<br/>In the particular case of hydrogen technologies the activities of the platform are mainly focused on supporting the new Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) initiative involving regions and cities. To date more than 80 European cities and regions have committed to participate in this initiative through the signature of a Memorandum of Understanding and more participants are expected to join. S3PEnergy is helping in the identification of potential combination of H2020 funding (provided through FCH JU) and ESIF.<br/>To identify potential synergies among these two funding sources a mapping of the different ESIF opportunities has been performed. In order to map these opportunities Operational Programmes (OPs) and research and innovation strategies for Smart Specialisation (RIS3) of the different European regions and Member States were analysed. The results of this mapping and analysis are presented in this paper."