Colombia

Given the increase in population and energy demand worldwide alternative methods have been adopted for the production of hydrogen as a clean energy source. This energy offers an alternative energy source due to its high energy content and without emissions to the environment. In this bibliometric analysis of energy production using electrolysis and taking into account the different forms of energy production. In this analysis it was possible to evaluate the research trends based on the literature in the Scopus database during the years 2011–2021. The results showed a growing interest in hydrogen production from electrolysis and other mechanisms with China being the country with the highest number of publications and the United States TOP in citations. The trend shows that during the first four years of this study (2011–2014) the average number of publications was 74 articles per year from 2015 to 2021 where the growth is an average of 209 articles the journal that published the most on this topic is Applied Energy followed by Energy contributing with almost 33% in the research area. Lastly the keyword analysis identified six important research points for future discussions which we have termed clusters. The study concludes that new perspectives on clean hydrogen energy generation environmental impacts and social acceptance could contribute to the positive evolution of the hydrogen energy industry.

This study investigated the influence of segregations on hydrogen environment embrittlement (HEE) of AISI 304L type austenitic stainless steels. The microstructure of tensile specimens that were fabricated from commercially available AISI 304L steels and tested by means of small strain-rate tensile tests in air as well as hydrogen gas at room temperature was investigated by means of combined EDS and EBSD measurements. It was shown that two different austenitic stainless steels having the same nominal alloy composition can exhibit different susceptibilities to HEE due to segregation effects resulting from different production routes (continuous casting/electroslag remelting). Local segregation-related variations of the austenite stability were evaluated by thermodynamic and empirical calculations. The alloying element Ni exhibits pronounced segregation bands parallel to the rolling direction of the material which strongly influences the local austenite stability. The latter was revealed by generating and evaluating two-dimensional distribution maps for the austenite stability. The formation of deformation-induced martensite was shown to be restricted to segregation bands with a low Ni content. Furthermore it was shown that the formation of hydrogen induced surface cracks is strongly coupled with the existence of surface regions of low Ni content and accordingly low austenite stability. In addition the growth behavior of hydrogen-induced cracks was linked to the segregation-related local austenite stability.

This research studies the current state of the Colombian industrial sector which is focused on self-generation processes. The study’s objective is to search for viable technological strategies that strengthen this particular sector’s competitiveness and sustainable development. The analysis shows that internal combustion engines represent 49% of the technologies used for self-generation. The main fuel used in the sector is natural gas with a percentage of 56%. The lack of strategies for the use of residual heat and technological inefficiencies caused a loss of 36% in the energy used in the Colombian industrial sector. Thermoelectric generators are a feasible way to recover energy from exhaust gases in engines used for self-generation. Additionally they allow a 4% reduction in fuel consumption and an improvement in the engine’s energy efficiency. The use of hydrogen as fuel allows a 30% reduction in polluting emissions such as CO2 CO HC and particulate matter. Hydrogen production processes such as water electrolysis allow the participation of Colombia’s solar energy potential leading to sustainable hydrogen production efficiency (60–80%) and a lower economic cost. In general the application of thermoelectric generators and the use of hydrogen gas allow the improvement of the Colombian industrial sector’s environmental social and economic aspects due to greater competitiveness and the reduction in emissions and operating costs.

Hydrogen is one of the main alternative fuels with the greatest potential to replace fossil fuels due to its renewable and environmentally friendly nature. Due to this the present investigation aims to evaluate the combustion characteristics performance parameters emissions and variations in the characteristics of the lubricating oil. The investigation was conducted in a spark-ignition engine fueled by gasoline and hydrogen gas. Four engine load conditions (25% 50% 75% and 100%) and three hydrogen gas mass concentration conditions (3% 6% and 9%) were defined for the study. The investigation results allowed to demonstrate that the injection of hydrogen gas in the gasoline engine causes an increase of 3.2% and 4.0% in the maximum values of combustion pressure and heat release rates. Additionally hydrogen causes a 2.9% increase in engine BTE. Hydrogen's more efficient combustion process allowed for reducing CO HC and smoke opacity emissions. However hydrogen gas causes an additional increase of 14.5% and 30.4% in reducing the kinematic viscosity and the total base number of the lubricating oil. In addition there was evidence of an increase in the concentration of wear debris such as Fe and Cu which implies higher rates of wear in the engine's internal components.

Electrification using renewable energy sources represents a clear path toward solving the current global energy crisis. In Colombia this challenge also involves the diversification of the electrical energy sources to overcome the historical dependence on hydropower. In this context green hydrogen represents a key energy carrier enabling the storage of renewable energy as well as directly powering industrial and transportation sectors. This work explores the realistic potential of the main renewable energy sources including solar photovoltaics (8172 GW) hydropower (56 GW) wind (68 GW) and biomass (14 GW). In addition a case study from abroad is presented demonstrating the feasibility of using each type of renewable energy to generate green hydrogen in the country. At the end an analysis of the most likely regions in the country and paths to deploy green hydrogen projects are presented favoring hydropower in the short term and solar in the long run. By 2050 this energy potential will enable reaching a levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) of 1.7 1.5 3.1 and 1.4 USD/kg-H2 for solar photovoltaic wind hydropower and biomass respectively.

This research proposes designing and implementing a system to produce hydrogen utilizing the thermal energy from the exhaust gases in a natural gas engine. For the construction of the system a thermoelectric generator was used to convert the thermal energy from the exhaust gases into electrical power and an electrolyzer bank to produce hydrogen. The system was evaluated using a natural gas engine which operated at a constant speed (2400 rpm) and six load conditions (20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % and 100 %). The effect of hydrogen on the engine was evaluated with fuel mixtures (NG + 10 % HEF and NG + 15 % HEF). The results demonstrate that the NG + 10 % HEF and NG + 15 % HEF mixtures allow for a decrease of 1.84 % and 2.33 % in BSFC and an increase of 1.88 % and 2.38 % in BTE. Through the NG + 15 % HEF mixture the engine achieved an energy efficiency of 34.15 % and an exergetic efficiency of 32.84 %. Additionally the NG + 15 % HEF mixture reduces annual CO CO2 and HC emissions by 9.52 % 15.48 % and 13.39 % respectively. The addition of hydrogen positively impacts the engine’s economic cost allowing for a decrease of 1.56 % in the cost of useful work and a reduction of 3.32 % in the cost of exergy loss. In general the proposed system for hydrogen production represents an alternative for utilizing the residual energy from exhaust gases resulting in better performance parameters reduced annual pollutant emissions and lower economic costs.

Latin America is starting its energy transition. In Colombia with its abundant natural resources and fossil fuel reserves hydrogen (H2 ) could play a key role. This contribution analyzes the potential of blue H2 production in Colombia as a possible driver of the H2 economy. The study assesses the natural resources available to produce blue H2 in the context of the recently launched National Hydrogen Roadmap. Results indicate that there is great potential for low-emission blue H2 production in Colombia using coal as feedstock. Such potential besides allowing a more sustainable use of non-renewable resources would pave the way for green H2 deployment in Colombia. Blue H2 production from coal could range from 700 to 8000 ktH2 /year by 2050 under conservative and ambitious scenarios respectively which could supply up to 1.5% of the global H2 demand by 2050. However while feedstock availability is promising for blue H2 production carbon dioxide (CO2 ) capture capacities and investment costs could limit this potential in Colombia. Indeed results of this work indicate that capture capacities of 15 to 180 MtCO2 /year (conservative and ambitious scenarios) need to be developed by 2050 and that the required investment for H2 deployment would be above that initially envisioned by the government. Further studies on carbon capture utilization and storage capacity implementation of a clear public policy and a more detailed hydrogen strategy for the inclusion of blue H2 in the energy mix are required for establishing a low-emission H2 economy in the country.

Hydrogen is considered one of the main gaseous fuels due to its ability to improve thermal performance in diesel engines. However its influence on the characteristics of lubricating oil is generally ignored. Thus in the present investigation an analysis of the effect on the physical and chemical properties of lubricating oil with mixtures of diesel fuel–hydrogen was carried out and the environmental impacts of this type of mixture were assessed. The development of the research was carried out using a diesel engine under four torque conditions (80 Nm 120 Nm 160 Nm and 200 Nm) and three hydrogen gas flow conditions (0.75 lpm 1.00 lpm and 1.25 lpm). From the results it was possible to demonstrate that the presence of hydrogen caused decreases of 3.50% 6.79% and 4.42% in the emissions of CO HC and smoke opacity respectively. However hydrogen further decreased the viscosity of the lubricating oil by 26%. Additionally hydrogen gas produced increases of 17.7% 29.27% 21.95% and 27.41% in metallic components such as Fe Cu Al and Cr respectively. In general hydrogen favors the contamination and oxidation of lubricating oil which implies a greater wear of the engine components. Due to the significantly negative impact of hydrogen on the lubrication system it should be considered due to its influence on the economic and environmental cost during the engine’s life cycle.

Hydrogen (H2) is a low-carbon carrier. Hence measuring the impact of its supply chain is key to guaranteeing environmental benefits. This research proposes a classification of H2 in Colombia based on its carbon footprint and source. Such environmental characterization enables the design of regulatory instruments to incentivize the demand for low carbon-H2. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to determine the carbon footprint of H2 production technologies. Based on our LCA four classes of H2 were defined based on the emission threshold: (i) gray-H2 (21.8 - 17.0 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) (ii) low carbon-H2 (4.13 – 17.0 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) (iii) blue-H2 (<4.13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) and (iv) green-H2 (<4.13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2). While low carbon-H2 could be employed to reduce 22% of the national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as defined in the National Determined Contribution (NDC) both blue and green-H2 could be employed for national and international trade since the standard emissions are aligned with international schemes such as CertifHy and the Chinese model. Besides gasification of biomass results in environmental savings indicating that biomass is a promising feedstock for international and local trade. Furthermore combinations of H2 production technologies such as renewable-based electrolysis natural gas steam reforming with CCS and ethanol conversion were evaluated to explore the production of a combination of green- and blue-H2 to meet the current and future demand of low carbon emission H2 in Colombia. However to comply with the proposed carbon emission threshold the installed capacities of solar and wind energies must be increase.

One of the key factors of the current energy transition is the use of hydrogen (H2 ) as fuel in energy transformation technologies. This fuel has the advantage of being produced from the most primary forms of energy and has the potential to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions. In recent years hydrogen or hydrogen-rich mixtures in internal combustion engines (ICEs) have gained popularity with numerous reports documenting their use in spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI) engines. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engines have the potential for substantial reductions in nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions and the use of hydrogen along with this kind of combustion could substantially reduce CO2 emissions. However there have been few reports using hydrogen in HCCI engines with most studies limited to evaluating technical feasibility combustion characteristics engine performance and emissions in laboratory settings at sea level. This paper presents a study of HCCI combustion using hydrogen in a stationary air-cooled Lombardini 25 LD 425-2 modified diesel engine located at 1495 m above sea level. An experimental phase was conducted to determine the intake temperature requirements and equivalence ratios for stable HCCI combustion. These results were compared with previous research carried out at sea level. To the best knowledge of the authors this is the first report on the combustion and operational limits for an HCCI engine fueled with hydrogen under the mentioned specific conditions. Equivalence ratios between 0.21 and 0.28 and intake temperatures between 188 ◦C and 235 ◦C effectively achieved the HCCI combustion. These temperature values were on average 100 ◦C higher than those reported in previous studies. The maximum value for the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEPn) was 1.75 bar and the maximum thermal efficiency (ITEn) was 34.5%. The achieved results are important for the design and implementation of HCCI engines running solely on hydrogen in developing countries located at high altitudes above sea level.