Policy & Socio-Economics
Hydrogen Supply Chains for Mobility—Environmental and Economic Assessment
May 2018
Publication
Hydrogen mobility is one option for reducing local emissions avoiding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and moving away from a mainly oil-based transport system towards a diversification of energy sources. As hydrogen production can be based on a broad variety of technologies already existing or under development a comprehensive assessment of the different supply chains is necessary regarding not only costs but also diverse environmental impacts. Therefore in this paper a broad variety of hydrogen production technologies using different energy sources renewable and fossil are exemplarily assessed with the help of a Life Cycle Assessment and a cost assessment for Germany. As environmental impacts along with the impact category Climate change five more advanced impact categories are assessed. The results show that from an environmental point of view PEM and alkaline electrolysis are characterized by the lowest results in five out of six impact categories. Supply chains using fossil fuels in contrast have the lowest supply costs; this is true e.g. for steam methane reforming. Solar powered hydrogen production shows low impacts during hydrogen production but high impacts for transport and distribution to Germany. There is no single supply chain that is the most promising for every aspect assessed here. Either costs have to be lowered further or supply chains with selected environmental impacts have to be modified.
Perspective on the Hydrogen Economy as a Pathway to Reach Net-zero CO2 Emissions in Europe
Jan 2022
Publication
The envisioned role of hydrogen in the energy transition – or the concept of a hydrogen economy – has varied through the years. In the past hydrogen was mainly considered a clean fuel for cars and/or electricity production; but the current renewed interest stems from the versatility of hydrogen in aiding the transition to CO2 neutrality where the capability to tackle emissions from distributed applications and complex industrial processes is of paramount importance. However the hydrogen economy will not materialise without strong political support and robust infrastructure design. Hydrogen deployment needs to address multiple barriers at once including technology development for hydrogen production and conversion infrastructure co-creation policy market design and business model development. In light of these challenges we have brought together a group of hydrogen researchers who study the multiple interconnected disciplines to offer a perspective on what is needed to deploy the hydrogen economy as part of the drive towards net-zero-CO2 societies. We do this by analysing (i) hydrogen end-use technologies and applications (ii) hydrogen production methods (iii) hydrogen transport and storage networks (iv) legal and regulatory aspects and (v) business models. For each of these we provide key take home messages ranging from the current status to the outlook and needs for further research. Overall we provide the reader with a thorough understanding of the elements in the hydrogen economy state of play and gaps to be filled.
The Hydrogen Economy and Jobs of the Future
Nov 2018
Publication
Growth in the hydrogen and fuel cell industries will lead to vast new employment opportunities and these will be created in a wide variety of industries skills tasks and earnings. Many of these jobs do not currently exist and do not have occupational titles defined in official classifications. In addition many of these jobs require different skills and education than current jobs and training requirements must be assessed so that this rapidly growing part of the economy has a sufficient supply of trained and qualified workers. We discuss the current hydrogen economy and technologies. We then identify by occupational titles the new jobs that will be created in the expanding hydrogen/fuel cell economy estimate the average US salary for each job identify the minimum educational attainment required to gain entry into that occupation and specify the recommended university degree for the advanced educational requirements. We provide recommendations for further research.
Fission Battery Markets and Economic Requirements
Oct 2022
Publication
Fission Batteries (FBs) are nuclear reactors for customers with heat demands less than 250 MWt—replacing oil and natural gas in a low-carbon economy. Individual FBs would have outputs between 5 and 30 MWt. The small FB size has two major benefits: (1) the possibility of mass production and (2) ease of transport and leasing with return of used FBs to factory for refurbishing and reuse. Comparatively these two features are lacking in larger conventional reactors. Larger reactors are not transportable and thus can’t obtain the manufacturing economics possible with mass production or the operational advantages of returning the FB to the factory after use. Leasing places the regulatory maintenance and fuel-cycle burden on the leasing company that is minimized by large-fleet operations of identical units. The markets and economic requirements for FBs were examined. The primary existing markets are industrial biofuels off-grid electricity and container ships. Two major future markets were identified—advanced biofuels and hydrogen. In a low-carbon world the competitive price range for heat is $20–50/MWh ($6–15/million BTU) and $70–115/MWh for non-grid electricity. The primary competition in these sectors is likely to be biofuels and hydrogen produced using alternative energy sources—grid electricity is non-competitive. Larger users of energy have alternative low-carbon energy choices including modular nuclear reactors and fossil fuels with carbon capture and sequestration (CCS).
The Socio-technical Dynamics of Net-zero Industrial Megaprojects: Outside-in and Inside-out Analyses of the Humber Industrial Cluster
Feb 2023
Publication
Although energy-intensive industries are often seen as ‘hard-to-decarbonise’ net-zero megaprojects for industrial clusters promise to improve the technical and economic feasibility of hydrogen fuel switching and carbon capture and storage (CCS). Mobilising insights from the megaproject literature this paper analyses the dynamics of an ambitious first-of-kind net-zero megaproject in the Humber industrial cluster in the United Kingdom which includes CCS and hydrogen infrastructure systems industrial fuel switching CO2 capture green and blue hydrogen production and hydrogen storage. To analyse the dynamics of this emerging megaproject the article uses a socio-technical system lens to focus on developments in technology actors and institutions. Synthesising multiple megaproject literature insights the paper develops a comprehensive framework that addresses both aggregate (‘outside-in’) developments and the endogenous (‘inside-out’) experiences and activities regarding three specific challenges: technical system integration actor coordination and institutional alignment. Drawing on an original dataset involving expert interviews (N = 46) site visits (N = 7) and document analysis the ‘outside-in’ analysis finds that the Humber megaproject has progressed rapidly from outline visions to specific technical designs enacted by new coalitions and driven by strengthening policy targets and financial support schemes. The complementary ‘inside-out’ analysis however also finds 12 alignment challenges that can delay or derail materialisation of the plans. While policies are essential aggregate drivers institutional misalignments presently also prevent project-actors from finalising design and investment decisions. Our analysis also finds important tensions between the project's high-pace delivery focus (to meet government targets) and allowing sufficient time for pilot projects learning-by-doing and design iterations.
Can the Hydrogen Economy Concept be the Solution to the Future Energy Crisis?
Feb 2022
Publication
The Hydrogen Economy concept is being proposed as a means of reducing and eventually decarbonising the world’s energy use. It looks to hydrogen as being a replacement for methane (natural gas) and generally as a way of removing all fossil fuels from the energy supply. The concept however has at least four flaws as follows: (1) hydrogen has significantly different properties to methane; (2) hydrogen has properties that create significant hazards; (3) hydrogen has a very small initiation (activation) energy; and (4) liquid hydrogen cannot readily replace liquefied natural gas (LNG). Hydrogen’s hazards will prevent it from being accepted in a societal sense. To the question ‘Can the Hydrogen Economy concept be the solution to the future energy crisis?’ the answer is ‘no’. Hydrogen has and will have a role in world energy but that role will be limited to industry. For the future we need an advanced electric economy.
The Value of Flexible Fuel Mixing in Hydrogen-fueled Gas Turbines - A Techno-economic Study
Jul 2022
Publication
In electricity systems mainly supplied with variable renewable electricity (VRE) the variable generation must be balanced. Hydrogen as an energy carrier combined with storage has the ability to shift electricity generation in time and thereby support the electricity system. The aim of this work is to analyze the competitiveness of hydrogen-fueled gas turbines including both open and combined cycles with flexible fuel mixing of hydrogen and biomethane in zero-carbon emissions electricity systems. The work applies a techno-economic optimization model to future European electricity systems with high shares of VRE.<br/>The results show that the most competitive gas turbine option is a combined cycle configuration that is capable of handling up to 100% hydrogen fed with various mixtures of hydrogen and biomethane. The results also indicate that the endogenously calculated hydrogen cost rarely exceeds 5 €/kgH2 when used in gas turbines and that a hydrogen cost of 3–4 €/kgH2 is for most of the scenarios investigated competitive. Furthermore the results show that hydrogen gas turbines are more competitive in wind-based energy systems as compared to solar-based systems in that the fluctuations of the electricity generation in the former are fewer more irregular and of longer duration. Thus it is the characteristics of an energy system and not necessarily the cost of hydrogen that determine the competitiveness of hydrogen gas turbines.
Day-ahead Economic Optimization Scheduling Model for Electricity–hydrogen Collaboration Market
Aug 2022
Publication
This paper presents a day-ahead economic optimization scheduling model for Regional Electricity–Hydrogen Integrated Energy System (REHIES) with high penetration of renewable energies. The electricity–hydrogen coupling devices are modelled with energy storage units and Insensitive Electrical Load (ISEL). The proposed objective function is able to capture the maximum benefits for REHIES in terms of economic benefits and can be summarized as a Quadratic Programming (QP) problem. The simulation verification is performed by MATLAB/CPLEX solver. The simulation results show that the proposed optimization model adapts the market requirement by contributing flexible collaboration between electricity and hydrogen. Also the translational properties of ISEL can implement higher economic profits and more effective utilization of renewable energy.
Comparative Levelized Cost Analysis of Transmitting Renewable Solar Energy
Feb 2023
Publication
A bottom-up cost analysis for delivering utility-scale PV-generated electricity as hydrogen through pipelines and as electricity through power is undertaken. Techno-economic generation and demand data for California are used to calculate the levelized cost of transmitting (LCOT) energy and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) prior to distribution. High-voltage levels of 230 kV and 500 kV and 24-inch and 36-inch pipelines for 100 to 700 miles of transmission are considered. At 100 miles of transmission the cost of transmission between each medium is comparable. At longer distances the pipeline scenarios become increasingly cheaper at low utilization levels. The all-electric pathways utilizing battery energy storage systems can meet 95% of the load for as low as 356 USD/MWh whereas when meeting 100% of load with the hydrogen gas turbine and fuel cell pathways the costs are 278 and 322 USD/MWh respectively.
Beyond the triangle of renewable Energy Acceptance: The Five Dimensions of Domestic Hydrogen Acceptance
Aug 2022
Publication
The ‘deep’ decarbonization of the residential sector is a priority for meeting national climate change targets especially in countries such as the UK where natural gas has been the dominant fuel source for over half a century. Hydrogen blending and repurposing the national grid to supply low-carbon hydrogen gas may offer respective short- and long-term solutions to achieving emissions reduction across parts of the housing sector. Despite this imperative the social acceptance of domestic hydrogen energy technologies remains underexplored by sustainability scholars with limited insights regarding consumer perceptions and expectations of the transition. A knowledge deficit of this magnitude is likely to hinder effective policymaking and may result in sub-optimal rollout strategies that derail the trajectory of the net zero agenda. Addressing this knowledge gap this study develops a conceptual framework for examining the consumer-facing side of the hydrogen transition. The paper affirms that the spatiotemporal patterns of renewable energy adoption are shaped by a range of interacting scales dimensions and factors. The UK’s emerging hydrogen landscape and its actor-network is characterized as a heterogenous system composed of dynamic relationships and interdependencies. Future studies should engage with domestic hydrogen acceptance as a co-evolving multi-scalar phenomenon rooted in the interplay of five distinct dimensions: attitudinal socio-political community market and behavioral acceptance. If arrived to behavioral acceptance helps realize the domestication of hydrogen heating and cooking established on grounds on cognitive sociopolitical and sociocultural legitimacy. The research community should internalize the complexity and richness of consumer attitudes and responses through a more critical and reflexive approach to the study of social acceptance.
The Significance of Formal & Legal Factors in Selecting a Location for a Hydrogen Buffer to Stabilize the Operation of Power Distribution Networks
Oct 2022
Publication
This article presents the conceptual assumptions for the process of identifying and evaluating the formal & legal factors that impact the choice of a hydrogen buffer location to stabilize the operation of power distribution networks. The assumption for the research process was establishing a methodological framework for an in-depth analysis of legislative acts (the EU legislation and the national law) to enable identification of synthetic groups of formal & legal factors to be further analyzed using the DEMATEL method. As a result the cause-and-effect relations between the variables were examined and an in-depth analysis was carried out to investigate the level of impact of the formal & legal factors on the functioning and location of a hydrogen energy buffer.
Transition to Renewable Energy for Communities: Energy Storage Requirements and Dissipation
Aug 2022
Publication
The transition of residential communities to renewable energy sources is one of the first steps for the decarbonization of the energy sector the reduction of CO2 emissions and the mitigation of global climate change. This study provides information for the development of a microgrid supplied by wind and solar energy which meets the hourly energy demand of a community of 10000 houses in the North Texas region; hydrogen is used as the energy storage medium. The results are presented for two cases: (a) when the renewable energy sources supply only the electricity demand of the community and (b) when these sources provide the electricity as well as the heating needs (for space heating and hot water) of the community. The results show that such a community can be decarbonized with combinations of wind and solar installations. The energy storage requirements are between 2.7 m3 per household and 2.2 m3 per household. There is significant dissipation in the storage–regeneration processes—close to 30% of the current annual electricity demand. The entire decarbonization (electricity and heat) of this community will result in approximately 87500 tons of CO2 emissions avoidance.
Roadmap Towards Zero Emissions, BEVs and FCEVs
Oct 2021
Publication
A “combined world” of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) will create a greener transportation sector faster and cheaper than one of the solutions alone. Hydrogen Council with analytical support from McKinsey and Company published a report that highlights the complementary roles of FCEVs and BEVs in a decarbonised transportation sector.
The analysis found that each solution has comparable systemic efficiencies and similar CO2 life cycle intensity. From the vehicle user perspective FCEVs and BEVs will provide the flexibility and convenience to meet their specific context of use and geographic location. Additionally the costs of two supporting infrastructure for FCEVs and BEVs is cheaper than one infrastructure network primarily due to the reduced peak loads and avoidance of costly upgrades on the electricity grid. The report’s messages were developed in dialogue with the Observatory Group which consisted of representatives of government agencies and academia as well as associations and companies active in sectors like regenerative electricity generation electricity grid equipment manufacturing electric vehicle charging fleet management.
The paper can be found on their website.
The analysis found that each solution has comparable systemic efficiencies and similar CO2 life cycle intensity. From the vehicle user perspective FCEVs and BEVs will provide the flexibility and convenience to meet their specific context of use and geographic location. Additionally the costs of two supporting infrastructure for FCEVs and BEVs is cheaper than one infrastructure network primarily due to the reduced peak loads and avoidance of costly upgrades on the electricity grid. The report’s messages were developed in dialogue with the Observatory Group which consisted of representatives of government agencies and academia as well as associations and companies active in sectors like regenerative electricity generation electricity grid equipment manufacturing electric vehicle charging fleet management.
The paper can be found on their website.
The Hydrogen Economy - Where is the Water?
Jul 2022
Publication
"Green hydrogen” i.e. hydrogen produced by splitting water with a carbon “free” source of electricity via electrolysis is set to become the energy vector enabling a deep decarbonisation of society and a virtuous water based energy cycle. If to date water electrolysis is considered to be a scalable technology the source of water to enable a “green hydrogen” economy at scale is questionable. Countries with the highest renewable energy potential like Australia are also among the driest places on earth. Globally 380000 GL/year of wastewater is available and this is much more than the 34500 GL/year of water required to produce the projected 2.3 Gt of hydrogen of a mature hydrogen economy. Hence the need to assess both technically and economically whether some wastewater treatment effluent are a better source for green hydrogen. Analysis of Sydney Water’s wastewater treatment plants alone shows that these plants have 37.6 ML/day of unused tertiary effluents which if electrolysed would generate 420000 t H2/day or 0.88 Mt H2/year and cover ∼100% of Australia’s estimated production by 2030. Furthermore the production of oxygen as a by-product of the electrolysis process could lead to significant benefits to the water industry not only in reducing the cost of the hydrogen produced for $3/kg (assuming a price of oxygen of $3–4 per kg) but also in improving the environmental footprint of wastewater treatment plants by enabling the onsite re-use of oxygen for the treatment of the wastewater. Compared to desalinated water that requires large investments or stormwater that is unpredictable it is apparent that the water utilities have a critical role to play in managing water assets that are “climate independent” as the next “golden oil” opportunity and in enabling a “responsible” hydrogen industry that sensibly manages its water demands and does not compete with existing water potable water demand.
Clean Energy Futures: An Australian Based Foresight Study
Aug 2022
Publication
Political decarbonisation commitments and outcompeting renewable electricity costs are disrupting energy systems. This foresight study prepares stakeholders for this dynamic reactive change by examining visions that constitute a probable plausible and possible component of future energy systems. Visions were extrapolated through an expert review of energy technologies and Australian case studies. ‘Probable–Abundant’ envisages a high penetration of solar and wind with increased value of balancing services: batteries pumped hydro and transmission. This vision is exemplified by the South Australian grid where variable and distributed sources lead generation. ‘Plausible–Traded’ envisages power and power fuel exports given hydrogen and high-voltage direct-current transmission advances reflected by public and private sector plans to leverage rich natural resources for national and intercontinental exchanges. ‘Possible–Zero’ envisages the application of carbon removal and nuclear technologies in response to the escalating challenge of deep decarbonisation. The Australian critical minerals strategy signals adaptations of high-emission industries to shifting energy resource values. These visions contribute a flexible accessible framework for diverse stakeholders to discuss uncertain energy systems changes and consider issues from new perspectives. Appraisal of preferred futures allows stakeholders to recognise observed changes as positive or negative and may lead to new planning aspirations.
Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen from Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis in Future Energy Systems
Jan 2019
Publication
This study discusses the potential of H2 production by proton exchange membrane water electrolysis as an effective option to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the hydrogen sector. To address this topic a life cycle assessment is conducted to compare proton exchange membrane water electrolysis versus the reference process - steam methane reforming. As a relevant result we show that hydrogen production via proton exchange membrane water electrolysis is a promising technology to reduce CO2 emissions of the hydrogen sector by up to 75% if the electrolysis system runs exclusively on electricity generated from renewable energy sources. In a future (2050) base-load operation mode emissions are comparable to the reference system.
The results for the global warming potential show a strong reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The thoroughly and in-depth modelled components of the electrolyser have negligible influence on impact categories; thus emissions are mainly determined by the electricity mix. With 2017 electricity mix of Germany the global warming potential corresponds to 29.5 kg CO2 eq. for each kg of produced hydrogen. Referring to the electricity mix we received from an energy model emissions can be reduced to 11.5 kg CO2 eq. in base-load operation by the year 2050. Using only the 3000 h of excess power from renewables in a year will allow for the reduction of the global warming potential to 3.3 kg CO2 eq. From this result we see that an environmentally friendly electricity mix is crucial for reducing the global warming impact of electrolytic hydrogen.
The results for the global warming potential show a strong reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The thoroughly and in-depth modelled components of the electrolyser have negligible influence on impact categories; thus emissions are mainly determined by the electricity mix. With 2017 electricity mix of Germany the global warming potential corresponds to 29.5 kg CO2 eq. for each kg of produced hydrogen. Referring to the electricity mix we received from an energy model emissions can be reduced to 11.5 kg CO2 eq. in base-load operation by the year 2050. Using only the 3000 h of excess power from renewables in a year will allow for the reduction of the global warming potential to 3.3 kg CO2 eq. From this result we see that an environmentally friendly electricity mix is crucial for reducing the global warming impact of electrolytic hydrogen.
Hydrogen Insights 2022
Sep 2022
Publication
Authored by the Hydrogen Council in collaboration with McKinsey and Company Hydrogen Insights 2022 presents an updated perspective on hydrogen market development and actions required to unlock hydrogen at scale.
The pipeline of hydrogen projects is continuing to grow but actual deployment is lagging.
680 large-scale project proposals worth USD 240 billion have been put forward but only about 10% (USD 22 billion) have reached final investment decision (FID). While Europe leads in proposed investments (~30%) China is slightly ahead on actual deployment of electrolyzers (200 MW) while Japan and South Korea are leading in fuel cells (more than half of the world’s 11 GW manufacturing capacity).
The urgency to invest in mature hydrogen projects today is greater than ever.
For the world to be on track for net zero emissions by 2050 investments of some USD 700 billion in hydrogen are needed through 2030 – only 3% of this capital is committed today. Ambition and proposals by themselves do not translate into positive impact on climate change; investments and implementation on the ground is needed.
Joint action by the public and private sectors is urgently required to move from project proposals to FIDs.
Both governments and industry need to act to implement immediate actions for 2022 to 2023 – policymakers need to enable demand visibility roll out funding support and ensure international coordination; industry needs to increase supply chain capability and capacity advance projects towards final investment decision (FID) and develop infrastructure for cross-border trade.
The paper can be found on their website.
The pipeline of hydrogen projects is continuing to grow but actual deployment is lagging.
680 large-scale project proposals worth USD 240 billion have been put forward but only about 10% (USD 22 billion) have reached final investment decision (FID). While Europe leads in proposed investments (~30%) China is slightly ahead on actual deployment of electrolyzers (200 MW) while Japan and South Korea are leading in fuel cells (more than half of the world’s 11 GW manufacturing capacity).
The urgency to invest in mature hydrogen projects today is greater than ever.
For the world to be on track for net zero emissions by 2050 investments of some USD 700 billion in hydrogen are needed through 2030 – only 3% of this capital is committed today. Ambition and proposals by themselves do not translate into positive impact on climate change; investments and implementation on the ground is needed.
Joint action by the public and private sectors is urgently required to move from project proposals to FIDs.
Both governments and industry need to act to implement immediate actions for 2022 to 2023 – policymakers need to enable demand visibility roll out funding support and ensure international coordination; industry needs to increase supply chain capability and capacity advance projects towards final investment decision (FID) and develop infrastructure for cross-border trade.
The paper can be found on their website.
A Thorough Emission-Cost Analysis of the Gradual Replacement of Carbon-Rich Fuels with Carbon-Free Energy Carriers in Modern Power Plants: The Case of Cyprus
Aug 2022
Publication
Global efforts towards de-carbonization give rise to remarkable energy challenges which include renewable energy penetration increase and intermediate energy carriers for a sustainable transition. In order to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels alternative sources are considered by commodities to satisfy their increasing electricity demand as a consequence of a rise in population and the quantity of residential appliances in forthcoming years. The near-term trends appear to be in fuel and emission reduction techniques through the integration of carbon capture and storage and more efficient energy carriers exploiting alternative energy sources such as natural gas and hydrogen. Formulating both the fuel consumption and emission released the obtained experimental results showed that the total production cost can be reduced by making use of natural gas for the transition towards 2035’s targets. Maximum profits will be achieved with hydrogen as the only fuel in modern power plants by 2050. In this way the lowest electricity production can be achieved as well as the elimination of carbon dioxide emissions. Since the integration of renewable energy resources in the sectors of electricity heating/cooling and transportation will continuously be increased alternative feedstocks can serve as primary inputs and contribute to production cost profits improved utilization factors and further environmental achievements.
The Smart Community: Strategy Layers for a New Sustainable Continental Framework
Feb 2023
Publication
The topic investigated in this article is a comparison contrast and integration effort of European strategies for sustainable development with the evolving market initiatives that are beginning to fuel the fourth industrial revolution. Several regulatory initiatives from continental bodies come into effect to radically change access to finances for business development based on sustainability goals and an analysis of the legislation and trends becomes essential for an effective pivot tactic in the face of adversity as well as change management policies to pre-emptively adapt and perform. The general research question is “what the strategic tools are best employed to overcome the hurdles laid forth by the drastic changes legally required for a sustainable future?” The research methods include a quantitative analysis of norms regulations and legislation including strategic initiatives circulated in the European Union governmental bodies integrated with qualitative research of the literature. The study finds and draws synergies between national strategies that have recently been drafted or are currently evolving with sustainability-centric initiatives such as the hydrogen initiative the nuclear initiative the natural gas initiative the renewables initiative the synthetics and biomass initiative the ESG initiative the digital initiative. The findings are to contribute to the business administration field by providing an appropriate image of the organizational design model in the sustainability era and a strategy framework to build the optimum long-term vision founded on continental regulatory initiatives that have come into effect.
Building the Green Hydrogen Market - Current State and Outlook on Green Hydrogen Demand and Electrolyzer Manufacturing
Jul 2022
Publication
Over the past two years requirements to meet climate targets have been intensified. In addition to the tightening of the climate targets and the demand for net-zero achievement by as early as 2045 there have been discussions on implementing and realizing these goals. Hydrogen has emerged as a promising climate-neutral energy carrier. Thus over the last 1.5 years more than 25 countries have published hydrogen roadmaps. Furthermore various studies by different authorities have been released to support the development of a hydrogen economy. This paper examines published studies and hydrogen country roadmaps as part of a meta-analysis. Furthermore a market analysis of electrolyzer manufacturers is conducted. The prospected demand for green hydrogen from various studies is compared to electrolyzer manufacturing capacities and selected green hydrogen projects to identify potential market ramp-up scenarios and to evaluate if green hydrogen demand forecasts can be filled.
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