Slovenia

We present the results of a life-cycle assessment (LCA) for the manufacturing and end-of-life (EoL) phases of the following fuel-cell and hydrogen (FCH) technologies: alkaline water electrolyser (AWE) polymer-electrolyte-membrane water electrolyser (PEMWE) high-temperature (HT) and low-temperature (LT) polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) together with the balance-of-plant components. New life-cycle inventories (LCIs) i.e. material inputs for the AWE PEMWE and HT PEMFC are developed whereas the existing LCI for the LT PEMFC is adopted from a previous EU-funded project. The LCA models for all four FCH technologies are created by modelling the manufacturing phase followed by defining the EoL strategies and processes used and finally by assessing the effects of the EoL approach using environmental indicators. The effects are analysed with a stepwise approach where the CML2001 assessment method is used to evaluate the environmental impacts. The results show that the environmental impacts of the manufacturing phase can be substantially reduced by using the proposed EoL strategies (i.e. recycled materials being used in the manufacturing phase and replacing some of the virgin materials). To point out the importance of critical materials (in this case the platinum-group metals or PGMs) and their recycling strategies further analyses were made. By comparing the EoL phase with and without the recycling of PGMs an increase in the environmental impacts is observed which is much greater in the case of both fuel-cell systems because they contain a larger quantity of PGMs.

The purpose of this paper is to obtain relevant data on materials that are the most commonly used in fuel-cell and hydrogen technologies. The focus is on polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel cells solid-oxide fuel cells polymer-electrolyte-membrane water electrolysers and alkaline water electrolysers. An innovative methodological approach was developed for a preliminary material assessment of the four technologies. This methodological approach leads to a more rapid identification of the most influential or critical materials that substantially increase the environmental impact of fuel-cell and hydrogen technologies. The approach also assisted in amassing the life-cycle inventories—the emphasis here is on the solid-oxide fuel-cell technology because it is still in its early development stage and thus has a deficient materials’ database—that were used in a life-cycle assessment for an in-depth material-criticality analysis. All the listed materials—that either are or could potentially be used in these technologies—were analysed to give important information for the fuel-cell and hydrogen industries the recycling industry the hydrogen economy as well as policymakers. The main conclusion from the life-cycle assessment is that the polymer-electrolyte membrane water electrolysers have the highest environmental impacts; lower impacts are seen in polymer-electrolyte-membrane fuel cells and solid-oxide fuel cells while the lowest impacts are observed in alkaline water electrolysers. The results of the material assessment are presented together for all the considered materials but also separately for each observed technology.

In this review we provide a short overview of the Molecular Dynamics (MD) method and how it can be used to model the water splitting process in photoelectrochemical hydrogen production. We cover classical non-reactive and reactive MD techniques as well as multiscale extensions combining classical MD with quantum chemical and continuum methods. Selected examples of MD investigations of various aqueous semiconductor interfaces with a special focus on TiO₂ are discussed. Finally we identify gaps in the current state-of-the-art where further developments will be needed for better utilization of MD techniques in the field of water splitting.

Although proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems are expected to have lower environmental impacts in the operational phase compared to conventional energy conversion systems there are still certain economic operational and environmental setbacks. Durability under a wide range of operating conditions presents a challenge because degradation processes affect the PEMFC efficiency. Typically life cycle assessment (LCA) of PEMFC systems do not include performance degradation. Thus a novel semi-empirical PEMFC model is developed which includes degradation effects caused by different operational regimes (dynamic and steady-state). The model is integrated into LCA through life cycle inventory (LCI) to achieve a more realistic and accurate evaluation of environmental impacts. Verification of the model clearly showed that the use of existing LCI models underestimates the environmental impacts. This is especially evident when green hydrogen is used in PEMFC operational phase where manufacturing phase and maintenance (stack replacements) become more influential. Input parameters of the model can be modified to reflect technological improvements (e.g. platinum loading or durability) and evaluate the effects of future scenarios.

Mountain huts as special stand-alone micro-grid systems are not connected to a power grid and represent a burden on the environment. The micro-grid has to be flexible to cover daily and seasonal fluctuations. Heat and electricity are usually generated with fossil fuels due to the simple on-off operation. By introducing renewable energy sources (RESs) the generation of energy could be more sustainable but the generation and consumption must be balanced. The paper describes the integration of a hydrogen-storage system (HSS) and a battery-storage system (BattS) in a mountain hut. The HSS involves a proton-exchange-membrane water electrolyser (PEMWE) a hydrogen storage tank (H₂ tank) a PEM fuel cell (PEMFC) and a BattS consisting of lead-acid batteries. Eight micro-grid configurations were modelled using HOMER and evaluated from the technical environmental and economic points of view. A life-cycle assessment analysis was made from the cradle to the gate. The micro-grid configurations with the HSS achieve on average a more than 70% decrease in the environmental impacts in comparison to the state of play at the beginning but require a larger investment. Comparing the HSS with the BattS as a seasonal energy storage the hydrogen-based technology had advantages for all of the assessed criteria.

Commonly used materials constituting the core components of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) including the balance‐of‐plant were classified according to the EU criticality methodology with an additional assessment of hazardousness and price. A life‐cycle assessment (LCA) of the materials potentially present in PEMFC systems was performed for 1  g of each material. To demonstrate the importance of appropriate actions at the end of life (EoL) for critical materials a LCA study of the whole life cycle for a 1‐kW PEMFC system and 20000 operating hours was performed. In addition to the manufacturing phase four different scenarios of hydrogen production were analyzed. In the EoL phase recycling was used as a primary strategy with energy extraction and landfill as the second and third. The environmental impacts for 1 g of material show that platinum group metals and precious metals have by far the largest environmental impact; therefore it is necessary to pay special attention to these materials in the EoL phase. The LCA results for the 1‐kW PEMFC system show that in the manufacturing phase the major environmental impacts come from the fuel cell stack where the majority of the critical materials are used. Analysis shows that only 0.75 g of platinum in the manufacturing phase contributes on average 60% of the total environmental impacts of the manufacturing phase. In the operating phase environmentally sounder scenarios are the hydrogen production with water electrolysis using hydroelectricity and natural gas reforming. These two scenarios have lower absolute values for the environmental impact indicators on average compared with the manufacturing phase of the 1‐kW PEMFC system. With proper recycling strategies in the EoL phase for each material and by paying a lot of attention to the critical materials the environmental impacts could be reduced on average by 37.3% for the manufacturing phase and 23.7% for the entire life cycle of the 1‐kW PEMFC system.

HyResponder is a European Hydrogen Train the Trainer programme for responders. This paper describes the key outputs of the project and the steps taken to develop and implement a long-term sustainable train the trainer programme in hydrogen safety for responders across Europe and beyond. This FCH2 JU (now Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking) funded project has built on the successful outcomes of the previous HyResponse project. HyResponder has developed further and updated educational operational and virtual reality training for trainers of responders to reflect the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety including liquid hydrogen and expand the programme across Europe and specifically within the 10 countries represented directly within the project consortium: Austria Belgium the Czech Republic France Germany Italy Norway Spain Switzerland and the United Kingdom. For the first time four levels of educational materials from fire fighter through to specialist have been developed. The digital training resources are available on the e-Platform (https://hyresponder.eu/e-platform/). The revised European Emergency Response Guide is now available to all stakeholders. The resources are intended to be used to support national training programs. They are available in 8 languages: Czech Dutch English French German Italian Norwegian and Spanish. Through the HyResponder activities trainers from across Europe have undertaken joint actions which are in turn being used to inform the delivery of regional and national training both within and beyond the project. The established pan-European network of trainers is shaping the future in the important for inherently safer deployment of hydrogen systems and infrastructure across Europe and enhancing the reach and impact of the programme.

Severe accidents in nuclear power plants are potentially dangerous to both humans and the environment. To prevent and/or mitigate the consequences of these accidents it is paramount to have adequate accident management measures in place. During a severe accident combustible gases — especially hydrogen and carbon monoxide — can be released in significant amounts leading to a potential explosion risk in the nuclear containment building. These gases need to be managed to avoid threatening the containment integrity which can result in the releases of radioactive material into the environment. The main objective of the AMHYCO project is to propose innovative enhancements in the way combustible gases are managed in case of a severe accident in currently operating reactors. For this purpose the AMHYCO project pursues three specific activities including experimental investigations of relevant phenomena related to hydrogen / carbon monoxide combustion and mitigation with PARs (Passive Autocatalytic Recombiners) improvement of the predictive capabilities of analysis tools used for explosion hazard evaluation inside the reactor containment as well as enhancement of the Severe Accident Management Guidelines (SAMGs) with respect to combustible gases risk management based on theoretical and experimental results. Officially launched on 1 October 2020 AMHYCO is an EU-funded Horizon 2020 project that will last 4 years from 2020 to 2024. This international project consists of 12 organizations (six from European countries and one from Canada) and is led by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM). AMHYCO will benefit from the worldwide experts in combustion science accident management and nuclear safety in its Advisory Board. The paper will give an overview of the work program and planned outcome of the project.

This paper discusses the potential for green-hydrogen production in a run-of-river 9 hydropower plant. This particular hydropower plant has no significant water accumulation but 10 there is the potential for limited hydrogen production due to a mismatch between the daily 11 predefined electricity production (known as the timetable) and the actual water inflows. The 12 timetable for the hydropower plant is prepared by the operator of the electro-energetic system 13 based on a model of the available production capacities forecasted consumption water 14 accumulation state of the river flows weather forecasts and the system operator’s strategy. The 15 uncertainty in the model’s input parameters is reflected in the output timetable for the 16 hydropower plant and for this reason a small reserve of water for potential exploitation is 17 envisaged. By using real data for the timetable and the water inflow we estimate the excess 18 hydropower that can be used for hydrogen cogeneration. Since the primary task of the 19 hydropower plant is to produce electricity according to the timetable the production of 20 hydrogen is only possible to a limited extent. Therefore we present a control algorithm that 21 regulates the amount of hydrogen production while considering the predefined timetable and 22 the real water accumulation. The second part of the paper deals with the economic viability of 23 hydrogen cogeneration in the case-study run-of-river hydropower plant and discusses the 24 possibility of using it for local public transport.

The article presents a new carbon-free heat production technology for district heating which consists of a combined heat and power generation fuel cell (FC CHP) with CO2 capture and a two-stage cascade high-temperature heat pump (TCHHP). The FC generates heat and electricity the latter being used to drive the compressors of the TCHHP. During the winter period the water temperature achieved can occasionally be too low so it would be heated up with hydrogen gas boilers. The hydrogen would be produced by reforming natural gas synthetic methane or biogas. The results are presented with natural gas utilization—the ratio between the obtained heat flow transferred directly to the water for district heating and the input heat flow of natural gas. In the case of a return water temperature of 60 ◦C and district heating temperature of 85 ◦C the TCHHP whose heat source is groundwater achieves plant efficiency of 270.04% in relation to the higher heating value (HHV) and 241.74% in relation to the lower heating value (LHV) of natural gas. A case with a TCHHP whose heat source is low-temperature geothermal water achieves a plant efficiency of 361.36% in relation to the HHV and 323.49% in relation to the LHV