Norway

Ambitious decarbonization pathways to limit the global temperature rise to well below 2 ◦C will require largescale CO2 removal from the atmosphere. One promising avenue for achieving this goal is hydrogen production from biomass with CO2 capture. The present study investigates the techno-economic prospects of a novel biomass-to-hydrogen process configuration based on the gas switching integrated gasification (GSIG) concept. GSIG applies the gas switching combustion principle to indirectly combust off-gas fuel from the pressure swing adsorption unit in tubular reactors integrated into the gasifier to improve efficiency and CO2 capture. In this study these efficiency gains facilitated a 5% reduction in the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) relative to conventional O2-blown fluidized bed gasification with pre-combustion CO2 capture even though the larger and more complex gasifier cancelled out the capital cost savings from avoiding the air separation and CO2 capture units. The economic assessment also demonstrated that advanced gas treatment using a tar cracker instead of a direct water wash can further reduce the LCOH by 12% and that the CO2 prices in excess of 100 €/ton consistent with ambitious decarbonization pathways will make this negative-emission technology economically highly attractive. Based on these results further research into the GSIG concept to facilitate more efficient utilization of limited biomass resources can be recommended.

Turquoise hydrogen from natural gas pyrolysis has recently emerged as a promising alternative for low-carbon hydrogen production with a high-value pure carbon by-product. However the implications of this technology on the broader energy system are not well understood at present. To close this literature gap this study presents an assessment of the integration of natural gas pyrolysis into a simplified European energy system. The energy system model minimizes the cost by optimizing investment and hourly dispatch of a broad range of electricity and fuel production transmission and storage technologies as well as imports/exports on the global market. Norway is included as a major natural gas producer and Germany as a major energy importer. Results reveal that pyrolysis is economically attractive at modest market shares where the carbon by-product can be sold into highvalue markets for 400 €/ton. However pyrolysis-dominated scenarios that employ methane as a hydrogen carrier also hold promise as they facilitate deep decarbonization without the need for vast expansions of international electricity hydrogen and CO2 transmission networks. The simplicity and security benefits of such pyrolysis-led decarbonization pathways justify the modest 11 % cost premium involved for an energy system where natural gas is the only energy trade vector. In conclusion there is a strong case for turquoise hydrogen in future energy systems and further efforts for commercialization of natural gas pyrolysis are recommended.

This paper proposes a techno-economic model for a high-speed hydrogen ferry. The model can describe the system properties i.e. energy demand weight and daily operating expenses of the ferry. A novel aspect is the consideration of superconductivity as a measure for cost saving in the setting where liquid hydrogen (LH2) can be both coolant and fuel. We survey different scenarios for a high-speed ferry that could carry 300 passengers. The results show that despite higher energy demand compressed hydrogen gas is more economical compared with LH2 for now; however constructing large-scale hydrogen liquefaction plants make it competitive in the future. Moreover compressed hydrogen gas is restricted to a shorter distance while LH2 makes longer distances possible and whenever LH2 is accessible using a superconducting propulsion system has a beneficial impact on both energy and cost savings. These effects strengthen if the operational time or the weight of the ferry increases.

Rising climate change ambitions require large-scale clean hydrogen production in the near term. “Blue” hydrogen from conventional steam methane reforming (SMR) with pre-combustion CO2 capture can fulfil this role. This study therefore presents techno-economic assessments of a range of SMR process configurations to minimize hydrogen production costs. Results showed that pre-combustion capture can avoid up to 80% of CO2 emissions cheaply at 35 €/ton but the final 20% of CO2 capture is much more expensive at a marginal CO2 avoidance cost around 150 €/ton. Thus post-combustion CO2 capture should be a better solution for avoiding the final 20% of CO2. Furthermore an advanced heat integration scheme that recovers most of the steam condensation enthalpy before the CO2 capture unit can reduce hydrogen production costs by about 6%. Two hybrid hydrogen production options were also assessed. First a “blue-green” hydrogen plant that uses clean electricity to heat the reformer achieved similar hydrogen production costs to the pure blue configuration. Second a “blue turquoise” configuration that replaces the pre-reformer with molten salt pyrolysis for converting higher hydrocarbons to a pure carbon product can significantly reduce costs if carbon has a similar value to hydrogen. In conclusion conventional pre-combustion CO2 capture from SMR is confirmed as a good solution for kickstarting the hydrogen economy and it can be tailored to various market conditions with respect to CO2 electricity and pure carbon prices.

This article presents findings from a representative survey fielded through the Norwegian Citizen Panel examining public perceptions of hydrogen fuel and its different production methods. Although several countries including Norway have strategies to increase the production of hydrogen fuel our results indicate that hydrogen as an energy carrier and its different production methods are still unknown to a large part of the public. A common misunderstanding seems to be confusing ‘hydrogen fuel’ in general with environmentally friendly ‘green hydrogen’. Results from a survey experiment (N = 1906) show that production method is important for public acceptance. On a five-point acceptance scale respondents score on average 3.9 for ‘green’ hydrogen which is produced from renewable energy sources. The level of acceptance is significantly lower for ‘blue’ (3.2) and ‘grey’ (2.3) hydrogen when respondents are informed that these are produced from coal oil or natural gas. Public support for hydrogen fuel in general as well as the different production methods is also related to their level of worry about climate change gender and political affiliation. Widespread misunderstandings regarding ‘green’ hydrogen production could potentially fuel public resistance as new ‘blue’ or ‘grey’ projects develop. Our results indicate a need for clearer communication from the government and developers regarding production methods to avoid distrust and potential public backfire.

As transitioning away from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources comes on the agenda for a range of energy systems energy modelling tools can provide useful insights. If large parts of the energy system turns out to be based on variable renewables an accurate representation of their short-term variability in such models is crucial. In this paper we have developed a stochastic long-term energy model and applied it to an isolated Arctic settlement as a challenging and realistic test case. Our findings suggest that the stochastic modelling approach is critical in particular for studies of remote Arctic energy systems. Furthermore the results from a case study of the Norwegian settlement of Longyearbyen suggest that transitioning to a system based on renewable energy sources is feasible. We recommend that a solution based mainly on renewable power generation but also including energy storage import of hydrogen and adequate back-up capacity is taken into consideration when planning the future of remote Arctic settlements.

The investment costs of water electrolysis represent one key challenge for the realisation of renewable hydrogen-based energy systems. This work presents a technology cost assessment and outlook towards 2030 for alkaline electrolysers (AEL) and PEM electrolysers (PEMEL) in the MW to GW range taking into consideration the effects of plant size and expected technology developments. Critical selected data was fitted to a modified power law to describe the cost of an electrolyser plant based on the overall capacity and a learning/technology development rate to derive cost estimations for different PEMEL and AEL plant capacities towards 2030. The analysis predicts that the CAPEX gap between AEL and PEMEL technologies will decrease significantly towards 2030 with plant size until 1 e10 MW range. Beyond this only marginal cost reductions can be expected with CAPEX values approaching 320e400 $/kW for large scale (greater than 100 MW) plants by 2030 with subsequent cost reductions possible. Learning rates for electrolysers were estimated at 25 e30% for both AEL and PEMEL which are significantly higher than the learning rates reported in previous literature.

Replacing fossil fuels with energy sources and carriers that are sustainable environmentally benign and affordable is amongst the most pressing challenges for future socio-economic development. To that goal hydrogen is presumed to be the most promising energy carrier. Electrocatalytic water splitting if driven by green electricity would provide hydrogen with minimal CO2 footprint. The viability of water electrolysis still hinges on the availability of durable earth-abundant electrocatalyst materials and the overall process efficiency. This review spans from the fundamentals of electrocatalytically initiated water splitting to the very latest scientific findings from university and institutional research also covering specifications and special features of the current industrial processes and those processes currently being tested in large-scale applications. Recently developed strategies are described for the optimisation and discovery of active and durable materials for electrodes that ever-increasingly harness first principles calculations and machine learning. In addition a technoeconomic analysis of water electrolysis is included that allows an assessment of the extent to which a large-scale implementation of water splitting can help to combat climate change. This review article is intended to cross-pollinate and strengthen efforts from fundamental understanding to technical implementation and to improve the ‘junctions’ between the field’s physical chemists materials scientists and engineers as well as stimulate much-needed exchange among these groups on challenges encountered in the different domains.

Hydrogen delivered at hydrogen refuelling station must be compliant with requirements stated in different standards which require specialized sampling device and personnel to operate it. Currently different strategies are implemented in different parts of the world and these strategies have already been used to perform 100s of hydrogen fuel sampling in USA EU and Japan. However these strategies have never been compared on a large systematic study. The purpose of this paper is to describe and compare the different strategies for sampling hydrogen at the nozzle and summarize the key aspects of all the existing hydrogen fuel sampling including discussion on material compatibility with the impurities that must be assessed. This review highlights the fact it is currently difficult to evaluate the impact or the difference these strategies would have on the hydrogen fuel quality assessment. Therefore comparative sampling studies are required to evaluate the equivalence between the different sampling strategies. This is the first step to support the standardization of hydrogen fuel sampling and to identify future research and development area for hydrogen fuel sampling.

The paper presents the first outcomes of the experimental numerical and theoretical studies performed in the funded by Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH2 JU) project HyTunnel-CS. The project aims to conduct pre-normative research (PNR) to close relevant knowledge gaps and technological bottlenecks in the provision of safety of hydrogen vehicles in underground transportation systems. Pre normative research performed in the project will ultimately result in three main outputs: harmonised recommendations on response to hydrogen accidents recommendations for inherently safer use of hydrogen vehicles in underground traffic systems and recommendations for RCS. The overall concept behind this project is to use inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral prenormative research by bringing together theoretical modelling and experimental studies to maximise the impact. The originality of the overall project concept is the consideration of hydrogen vehicle and underground traffic structure as a single system with integrated safety approach. The project strives to develop and offer safety strategies reducing or completely excluding hydrogen-specific risks to drivers passengers public and first responders in case of hydrogen vehicle accidents within the currently available infrastructure.

In the maritime domain hydrogen fuel cell propulsion and autonomous vessels are two important issues that are yet to be implemented together because of a few challenges. It is obvious that there are several individual safety studies on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships and hydrogen storage as well as fuel cells based on various risk assessment tools but the combined safety studies that include hydrogen fuel cells on autonomous vessels with recent risk analysis methods are extremely limited. This research chooses the “System-Theoretic Process Analysis” (STPA) method which is a recent method for potential risk identification and mitigation. Both hydrogen and autonomous vessels are analyzed and assessed together with the STPA method. Results are not speculative but rather flexible compared to conventional systems. The study finds a total of 44 unsafe control actions (UCAs) evolved from human and central control unit controllers through STPA. Further the loss scenarios (LS) are identified that lead to those UCAs so that loss scenarios can be assessed and UCAs can be mitigated for safe operation. The objective of this study is to ensure adequate safety for hydrogen fuel cell propulsion on autonomous vessels.

HyResponder is a European Hydrogen Train the Trainer programme for responders. This paper describes the key outputs of the project and the steps taken to develop and implement a long-term sustainable train the trainer programme in hydrogen safety for responders across Europe and beyond. This FCH2 JU (now Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking) funded project has built on the successful outcomes of the previous HyResponse project. HyResponder has developed further and updated educational operational and virtual reality training for trainers of responders to reflect the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety including liquid hydrogen and expand the programme across Europe and specifically within the 10 countries represented directly within the project consortium: Austria Belgium the Czech Republic France Germany Italy Norway Spain Switzerland and the United Kingdom. For the first time four levels of educational materials from fire fighter through to specialist have been developed. The digital training resources are available on the e-Platform (https://hyresponder.eu/e-platform/). The revised European Emergency Response Guide is now available to all stakeholders. The resources are intended to be used to support national training programs. They are available in 8 languages: Czech Dutch English French German Italian Norwegian and Spanish. Through the HyResponder activities trainers from across Europe have undertaken joint actions which are in turn being used to inform the delivery of regional and national training both within and beyond the project. The established pan-European network of trainers is shaping the future in the important for inherently safer deployment of hydrogen systems and infrastructure across Europe and enhancing the reach and impact of the programme.

Equinor has in recent years focused on low carbon technologies in addition to conventional oil & gas technologies. Clear strategic directions have been set to demonstrate Equinor’s commitment to longterm value creation that supports the Paris Agreement. This includes acceleration of decarbonization by establishing a well-functioning market for carbon capture transport and storage (CCS) as well as development of competitive hydrogen-based value chains and solutions. The specific properties of hydrogen must be taken into account in order to ensure safe design and operation of hydrogen systems as these properties differ substantially from those of natural gas and other conventional oil & gas products. Development projects need to consider and mitigate the increased possibility of high explosion pressures or detonation if hydrogen releases accumulate in enclosed or congested areas. On the other hand hydrogen’s buoyant properties can be exploited by locating potential leak points in the open to avoid gas accumulation thereby reducing the explosion risk. The purpose of this paper is to introduce Equinor’s hydrogen-based value chain projects and present our approach to ensure safe and effective designs. Safety strategies constitute the basis for Equinor’s safety and risk management. The safety strategies describe the connection between the hazards and risk profiles on one hand and the safety barrier elements and their needed performance on the other as input to safe design. The safety strategies also form the basis for safe operation. Measures to control the risk through practical designs follow from these strategies.

Hydrogen is one of the most suitable candidates in replacing fossil fuels. However storage issues due to its very low density under ambient conditions are encountered in many applications. The liquefaction process can overcome such issues by increasing hydrogen’s density and thus enhancing its storage capacity. A boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) is a phenomenon in liquefied gas storage systems. It is a physical explosion that might occur after the catastrophic rupture of a vessel containing a liquid with a temperature above its boiling point at atmospheric pressure. Even though it is an atypical accident scenario (low probability) it should be always considered due to its high yield consequences. For all the above-mentioned reasons the BLEVE phenomenon for liquid hydrogen (LH2) vessels was studied using the CFD methodology. Firstly the CFD model was validated against a well-documented CO2 BLEVE experiment. Secondly hydrogen BLEVE cases were simulated based on tests that were conducted in the 1990s on LH2 tanks designed for automotive purposes. The parametric CFD analysis examined different filling degrees initial pressures and temperatures of the tank content with the aim of comprehending to what extent the initial conditions influence the blast wave. Good agreement was shown between the simulation outcomes and the LH2 bursting scenario tests results.

The paper presents three approaches for the sizing and control of a maritime hybrid power-plant equipped with proton exchange membrane fuel cells and batteries. The study focuses on three different power-plant configurations including the energy management strategy and the power-plant component sizing. The components sizing is performed following the definition of the energy management strategy using the sequential optimization approach. These configurations are tested using a dynamic model developed in Simulink. The simulations are carried out to validate the technical feasibility of each configuration for maritime use. Each energy management strategy is developed to allow for the optimization of a chosen set of parameters such as hydrogen consumption and fuel cell degradation. It is observed that in the hybrid power-plant optimization there are always trade-offs and the optimization should be carried out by prioritizing primary factors the ship owner considers most important for day-to-day operations.

Maritime transport accounts for around 3% of global anthropogenic Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Well-to-Wake) and these emissions must be reduced with at least 50% in absolute values by 2050 to contribute to the ambitions of the Paris agreement (2015). Zero carbon fuels made from renewable sources (hydro wind or solar) are by many seen as the most promising option to deliver the desired GHG reductions. For the maritime sector these fuels come in two forms: First as E-Hydrogen or E-Ammonia; Second as Hydrocarbon E-fuels in the form of E-Diesel E-LNG or E-Methanol. We evaluate emissions energy use and cost for E-fuels and find that the most robust path to these fuels is through dual-fuel engines and systems to ensure flexibility in fuel selection to prepare for growing supplies and lower risks. The GHG reduction potential of E-fuels depends entirely on abundant renewable electricity.

Development of hydrogen facilities such as hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) at scale is a fine balance between economy and safety where an optimal solution would both prevent showstoppers due to cost of increased safety measures and prevent showstoppers due to hydrogen accidents. A detailed Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA) methodology is presented where the aim is to establish the total risk of the facility and use it to find the right level of safety features such as blast walls and layout. With upscaled hydrogen facilities comes larger area footprints and more potential leak points. These effects will cause increased possible consequence in terms of vapour cloud explosions and increased leak frequencies. Both effects contributing negative to the total risk of the hydrogen facility. At the same time as the number of such facilities is increasing rapidly the frequency of incidents can also increase. A risk-based approach is employed where inherently safe solutions is investigated and cost efficient and acceptable solutions can be established. The present QRA uses well established tools such as SAFETI FLACS and Express which are fitted for hydrogen risks. By using the established Explosion Risk Analysis tool Express the explosion risk inside the station can be found. By using CFD tools actively one can point at physical risk drivers such as equipment layout that can minimize gas cloud build-up on the station. The explosion simulations are further used to find the effects of e.g. blast wall on the pressures affecting on people on the other side of the wall. This is used together with the results from the SAFETI analysis to develop risk contours around the facility. Current standardized safety distances are discussed by considering the effects of scaling and risk drivers on the safety distances. The methodology can be used to develop certain requirement for how hydrogen facilities should be built inherently safe and in cost-efficient ways.

The energy transition with transformation into predominantly renewable sources requires technology development to secure power production at all times despite the intermittent nature of the renewables. Micro gas turbines (MGTs) are small heat and power generation units with fast startup and load-following capability and are thereby suitable backup for the future’s decentralized power generation systems. Due to MGTs’ fuel flexibility a range of fuels from high-heat to lowheat content could be utilized with different greenhouse gas generation. Developing micro gas turbines that can operate with carbon-free fuels will guarantee carbon-free power production with zero CO2 emission and will contribute to the alleviation of the global warming problem. In this paper the redevelopment of a standard 100-kW micro gas turbine to run with methane/hydrogen blended fuel is presented. Enabling micro gas turbines to run with hydrogen blended fuels has been pursued by researchers for decades. The first micro gas turbine running with pure hydrogen was developed in Stavanger Norway and launched in May 2022. This was achieved through a collaboration between the University of Stavanger (UiS) and the German Aerospace Centre (DLR). This paper provides an overview of the project and reports the experimental results from the engine operating with methane/hydrogen blended fuel with various hydrogen content up to 100%. During the development process the MGT’s original combustor was replaced with an innovative design to deal with the challenges of burning hydrogen. The fuel train was replaced with a mixing unit new fuel valves and an additional controller that enables the required energy input to maintain the maximum power output independent of the fuel blend specification. This paper presents the test rig setup and the preliminary results of the test campaign which verifies the capability of the MGT unit to support intermittent renewable generation with minimum greenhouse gas production. Results from the MGT operating with blended methane/hydrogen fuel are provided in the paper. The hydrogen content varied from 50% to 100% (volume-based) and power outputs between 35 kW to 100kW were tested. The modifications of the engine mainly the new combustor fuel train valve settings and controller resulted in a stable operation of the MGT with NOx emissions below the allowed limits. Running the engine with pure hydrogen at full load has resulted in less than 25 ppm of NOx emissions with zero carbon-based greenhouse gas production.

Rapidly declining costs of renewable energy technologies have made solar and wind the cheapest sources of energy in many parts of the world. This has been seen primarily as enabling the rapid decarbonization of the electricity sector but low-cost low-carbon energy can have a great secondary impact by reducing the costs of energy-intensive decarbonization efforts in other areas. In this study we consider by way of an exemplary carbon capture and utilization cycle based on mature technologies the energy requirements of the “industrial carbon cycle” an emerging paradigm in which industrial CO2 emissions are captured and reprocessed into chemicals and fuels and we assess the impact of declining renewable energy costs on overall economics of these processes. In our exemplary process CO2 is captured from a cement production facility via an amine scrubbing process and combined with hydrogen produced by a solar-powered polymer electrolyte membrane using electrolysis to produce methanol. We show that solar heat and electricity generation costs currently realized in the Middle East lead to a large reduction in the cost of this process relative to baseline assumptions found in published literature and extrapolation of current energy price trends into the near future would bring costs down to the level of current fossil-fuel-based processes.

The overall ambition of the study has been to assess the commercial and operational viability of alternative marine fuels based on review existing academic and industry literature. The approach assesses how well six alternative fuels perform compared to LNG fuel on a set of 11 key parameters. Conventional fuels are not covered in this study however 2020 compliant fuels (HFO+scrubber and low sulphur fuels are included in the conclusion for comparative purposes.

This article explores the complexity of factors or mechanisms that can influence hydrogen stakeholder perception and acceptance in Norway. We systematically analyze 16 semi-structured in-depth interviews with industry stakeholders at local municipal regional and national levels of interest and authority in Norway. Four empirical dimensions are identified that highlight the need for whole system approaches in hydrogen technology research: (1) several challenges incentives and synergy effects influence the hydrogen transition; (2) transport preferences are influenced by combined needs and limitations; (3) levels of knowledge and societal trust determinant to perceptions of risk and acceptance; and (4) national and international hydrogen stakeholders are crucial to building incentives and securing commitment among key actors. Our findings imply that project management planners engineers and policymakers need to apply a whole system perspective and work across local regional and national levels before proceeding with large-scale development and implementation of the hydrogen supply chain.

International standards related to cryogenic hydrogen transferring technologies for mobile applications (filling of trucks ships stationary tanks) are missing and there is lack of experience. The European project ELVHYS (Enhancing safety of liquid and vaporized hydrogen transfer technologies in public areas for mobile applications) aims to provide indications on inherently safer and efficient cryogenic hydrogen technologies and protocols in mobile applications by proposing innovative safety strategies which are the results of a detailed risk analysis. This is carried out by applying an inter-disciplinary approach to study both the cryogenic hydrogen transferring procedures and the phenomena that may arise from the loss of containment of a piece of equipment containing hydrogen. ELVHYS will provide critical inputs for the development of international standards by creating inherently safer and optimized procedures and guidelines for cryogenic hydrogen transferring technologies thus increasing their safety level and efficiency. The aim of this paper is twofold: present the state of the art of liquid hydrogen transfer technologies by focusing on previous research projects such as PRESLHY and introduce the objectives and methods planned in the new EU project ELVHYS.

Hydrogen could gradually replace fossil fuels mitigating the human impact on the environment. However equipment exposed to hydrogen is subjected to damaging effects due to H2 absorption and permeation through metals. Hence inspection activities are necessary to preserve the physical integrity of the containment systems and the risk-based (RBI) methodology is considered the most beneficial approach. This review aims to provide relevant information regarding hydrogen embrittlement its effect on materials’ properties and the synergistic interplay of the factors influencing its occurrence. Moreover an overview of predictive maintenance strategies is presented focusing on the RBI methodology. A systematic review was carried out to identify examples of the application of RBI to equipment exposed to hydrogenated environments and to identify the most active research groups. In conclusion a significant lack of knowledge has been highlighted along with difficulties in applying the RBI methodology for equipment operating in a pure hydrogen environment.

This paper studies fast fueling of gaseous hydrogen into large hydrogen (H2) tanks suitable for maritime applications. Three modeling methods have been developed and evaluated: (1) Two-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modeling (2) One-dimensional wall discretized modeling and (3) Zero-dimensional modeling. A detailed 2D CFD simulation of a small H2-tank was performed and validated with data from literature and then used to simulate a large H2-tank. Results from the 2D-model show non-uniform temperature distribution inside the large tank but not in the small H2-tank. The 1D-model can predict the mean temperature in small H2-tanks but not the inhomogeneous temperature field in large H2-tanks. The 0D-model is suitable as a screening tool to obtain rough estimates. Results from the modeling of the large H2-tank show that the heat transfer to the wall during fast filling is inhibited by heat conduction in the wall which leads to an unacceptably high mean hydrogen temperature.

The Russian invasion of Ukraine has undeniably disrupted the EU's energy system and created a window of opportunity for an acceleration of the low-carbon energy transition in Europe. As the trading bloc's biggest gas supplier Norway faces the imminent threat of fast-depleting gas reserves and declining value for its exports. Norway is trying to beat the clock by aggressively exploring more petroleum therefore delaying its energy transition. In anticipation of the future drop in gas prices Norway is counting on blue hydrogen to valorise its gas resources before gradually shifting to green hydrogen export. Against this background this article seeks to understand how changes in the EU's energy landscape have affected the energy export sector and low-carbon hydrogen export developments in Norway from a multi-level perspective. Using the exploratory scenario approach the article assesses the implications of the different petroleum exploration outcomes on the development of the low-carbon hydrogen export market in Norway. The findings show that despite gas discoveries there is an urgent need for a phase-out plan for the Norwegian petroleum sector. For low-carbon hydrogen to play an important role in Norway's energy transition time is of the essence and action needs to be taken during this window of opportunity. An industrial sector and its value chain could take 25 years to transform which means that actions and policies for a full transformation pathway need to take place in Norway by 2025 to be ready for a climate-neutral Europe in 2050.