United Kingdom
East Coast Hydrogen Feasibility Report
Nov 2021
Publication
The highlights of the report include:
- East Coast Hydrogen has the potential to connect up to 7GW of hydrogen production by 2030 alone exceeding the UK Government’s 5GW by 2030 target in a single project. It represents an unmissable opportunity for government and the private sector to work together in delivering on our ambitious decarbonisation targets.
- East Coast Hydrogen can use the natural assets of the North of England including existing and potential hydrogen storage facilities and build on the hydrogen production in two of the UK’s largest industrial clusters in the North East and North West in turn ensuring significant private sector investment in the UK’s industrial heartlands.
- This would be the first step in the conversion of our national gas grid to hydrogen and will act as a blueprint for subsequent conversions across the UK.
- The project will also demonstrate the innovation engineering capabilities and economic opportunity in the North and create tens of thousands of highly skilled Green jobs in the future hydrogen economy."
Green Hydrogen Production and Use in Low- and Middle-income Countries: A Least-cost Geospatial Modelling Approach Applied to Kenya
May 2023
Publication
With the rising threat of climate change green hydrogen is increasingly seen as the high-capacity energy storage and transport medium of the future. This creates an opportunity for low- and middle-income countries to leverage their high renewable energy potential to produce use and export low-cost green hydrogen creating environmental and economic development benefits. While identifying ideal locations for green hydrogen production is critical for countries when defining their green hydrogen strategies there has been a paucity of adequate geospatial planning approaches suitable to low- and middle-income countries. It is essential for these countries to identify green hydrogen production sites which match demand to expected use cases such that their strategies are economically sustainable. This paper therefore develops a novel geospatial cost modelling method to optimize the location of green hydrogen production across different use cases with a focus on suitability to low- and middle-income countries. This method is applied in Kenya to investigate the potential hydrogen supply chain for three use cases: ammonia-based fertilizer freight transport and export. We find hydrogen production costs of e3.7–9.9/kgH2 are currently achievable across Kenya depending on the production location chosen. The cheapest production locations are identified to the south and south-east of Lake Turkana. We show that ammonia produced in Kenya can be cost-competitive given the current energy crisis and that Kenya could export hydrogen to Rotterdam with costs of e7/kgH2 undercutting current market prices regardless of the carrier medium. With expected techno-economic improvements hydrogen production costs across Kenya could drop to e1.8–3.0/kgH2 by 2030.
A Study into Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Power and Voltage Prediction using Artificial Neural Network
Sep 2022
Publication
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses hydrogen as fuel to generate electricity and by-product water at relatively low operating temperatures which is environmentally friendly. Since PEMFC performance characteristics are inherently nonlinear and related predicting the best performance for the different operating conditions is essential to improve the system’s efficiency. Thus modeling using artificial neural networks (ANN) to predict its performance can significantly improve the capabilities of handling multi-variable nonlinear performance of the PEMFC. This paper predicts the electrical performance of a PEMFC stack under various operating conditions. The four input terms for the 5 W PEMFC include anode and cathode pressures and flow rates. The model performances are based on ANN using two different learning algorithms to estimate the stack voltage and power. The models have shown consistently to be comparable to the experimental data. All models with at least five hidden neurons have coefficients of determination of 0.95 or higher. Meanwhile the PEMFC voltage and power models have mean squared errors of less than 1 × 10−3 V and 1 × 10−3 W respectively. Therefore the model results demonstrate the potential use of ANN into the implementation of such models to predict the steady state behavior of the PEMFC system (not limited to polarization curves) for different operating conditions and help in the optimization process for achieving the best performance of the system.
OIES Podcast: Global Trade of Hydrogen: What is the Best Way to Transfer Hydrogen Over Long Distances?
Aug 2022
Publication
In this podcast David Ledesma talks with Rahmat Poudineh Senior Research Fellow and Aliaksei Patonia Research Fellow on issues and options with respect to long distance transportation of the hydrogen.
Hydrogen currently is mainly a local or regional commodity. If hydrogen is to become a truly global-traded commodity it needs to be transported over long transoceanic distances in an economical way. However unlike natural gas shipping compressed or liquefied hydrogen over long distances is very inefficient and expensive. At the same time hydrogen can be converted into multiple carriers with a higher energy density and higher transport capacity such as liquid ammonia toluene/methylcyclohexane (MCH) or methanol. These chemicals have their own advantages and drawbacks and their techno-economic characteristics in terms of boil-off gas and thermodynamic and conversion losses play a key role in the efficiency of transoceanic transportation of the hydrogen.
On the other hand apart from techno-economic features there are other factors to consider for long distance transportation of the hydrogen via its careers. Here such issues as safety public acceptance as well as legal and regulatory constraints may come into play. Another factor is the availability of the industries and infrastructures already developed around any of possible hydrogen carriers as well as their potential industrial applicability beyond hydrogen. Finally technological progress in other decarbonization applications and most importantly full commercialization of CCUS solutions is likely to dramatically change the approach towards long distance hydrogen transportation.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Hydrogen currently is mainly a local or regional commodity. If hydrogen is to become a truly global-traded commodity it needs to be transported over long transoceanic distances in an economical way. However unlike natural gas shipping compressed or liquefied hydrogen over long distances is very inefficient and expensive. At the same time hydrogen can be converted into multiple carriers with a higher energy density and higher transport capacity such as liquid ammonia toluene/methylcyclohexane (MCH) or methanol. These chemicals have their own advantages and drawbacks and their techno-economic characteristics in terms of boil-off gas and thermodynamic and conversion losses play a key role in the efficiency of transoceanic transportation of the hydrogen.
On the other hand apart from techno-economic features there are other factors to consider for long distance transportation of the hydrogen via its careers. Here such issues as safety public acceptance as well as legal and regulatory constraints may come into play. Another factor is the availability of the industries and infrastructures already developed around any of possible hydrogen carriers as well as their potential industrial applicability beyond hydrogen. Finally technological progress in other decarbonization applications and most importantly full commercialization of CCUS solutions is likely to dramatically change the approach towards long distance hydrogen transportation.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Techno-Economic Analysis of Hydrogen Storage Technologies for Railway Engineering: A Review
Sep 2022
Publication
According to the specific requirements of railway engineering a techno-economic comparison for onboard hydrogen storage technologies is conducted to discuss their feasibility and potentials for hydrogen-powered hybrid trains. Physical storage methods including compressed hydrogen (CH2 ) liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) and cryo-compressed hydrogen (CcH2 ) and material-based (chemical) storage methods such as ammonia liquid organic hydrogen carriages (LOHCs) and metal hydrides are carefully discussed in terms of their operational conditions energy capacity and economic costs. CH2 technology is the most mature now but its storage density cannot reach the final target which is the same problem for intermetallic compounds. In contrast LH2 CcH2 and complex hydrides are attractive for their high storage density. Nevertheless the harsh working conditions of complex hydrides hinder their vehicular application. Ammonia has advantages in energy capacity utilisation efficiency and cost especially being directly utilised by fuel cells. LOHCs are now considered as a potential candidate for hydrogen transport. Simplifying the dehydrogenation process is the important prerequisite for its vehicular employment. Recently increasing novel hydrogen-powered trains based on different hydrogen storage routes are being tested and optimised across the world. It can be forecasted that hydrogen energy will be a significant booster to railway decarbonisation.
Next Steps for the Gas Grid- Future Gas Series Part 1
Sep 2014
Publication
Policy Connect Carbon Connect and sector and Parliamentary experts have collaborated to present options for the gas grid to play a useful role in the UK’s transition to a low carbon energy system through the widespread use of low carbon gas. The report calls on Government to support the transition to a more flexible gas grid that uses various forms of gas including low carbon gases such as hydrogen and biomethane.
Assessment of Hydrogen Fuel for Rotorcraft Applications
Jun 2022
Publication
This paper presents the application of a multidisciplinary approach for the preliminary design and evaluation of the potential improvements in performance and environmental impact through the utilization of compressed (CGH2) and liquefied (LH2) hydrogen fuel for a civil tilt-rotor modelled after the NASA XV-15. The methodology deployed comprises models for rotorcraft flight dynamics engine performance flight path analysis hydrogen tank and thermal management system sizing. Trade-offs between gravimetric efficiency energy consumption fuel burn CO2 emissions and cost are quantified and compared to the kerosene-fuelled rotorcraft. The analysis carried out suggests that for these vehicle scales gravimetric efficiencies of the order of 13% and 30% can be attained for compressed and liquid hydrogen storage respectively leading to reduced range capability relative to the baseline tilt-rotor by at least 40%. At mission level it is shown that the hydrogen-fuelled configurations result in increased energy consumption by at least 12% (LH2) and 5% (CGH2) but at the same time significantly reduced life-cycle carbon emissions compared to the kerosene counterpart. Although LH2 storage at cryogenic conditions has a higher gravimetric efficiency than CGH2 (at 700 bar) it is shown that for this class of rotorcraft the latter is more energy efficient when the thermal management system for fuel pressurization and heating prior to combustion is accounted for.
Policy and Pricing Barriers to Steel Industry Decarbonisation: A UK Case Study
Aug 2022
Publication
Global climate targets have highlighted the need for a whole-systems approach to decarbonisation one that includes targeted national policy and industry specific change. Situated within this context this research examines policy and pricing barriers to decarbonisation of the UK steel industry. Here the techno-economic modelling of UK green steelmaking provides a technical contribution to analysis of pricing barriers and policy solutions to these barriers in the UK specifically but also to the broader industrial decarbonisation literature. Estimated costs and associated emissions projections reveal relevant opportunities for UK steel in contributing to national climate and emissions targets. Modelling demonstrates that green steelmaking options have been put at price disadvantages compared to emissions-intensive incumbents and that fossil-free hydrogen-based steel-making has lower emissions and lower levelised costs than carbon capture and storage options including top gas recycling blast furnace (TGR-BF) with CCS and HIsarna smelter with CCS. Two primary policy recommendations are made: the removal of carbon pricing discrepancies and reductions in industrial electricity prices that would level the playing field for green steel producers in the UK. The research also provides relevant policy considerations for the international community in other industrial decarbonisation efforts and the policies that must accompany these decarbonisation choices.
Moving Toward the Low-carbon Hydrogen Economy: Experiences and Key Learnings from National Case Studies
Sep 2022
Publication
The urgency to achieve net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 2050 as first presented by the IPCC special report on 1.5°C Global Warming has spurred renewed interest in hydrogen to complement electrification for widespread decarbonization of the economy. We present reflections on estimates of future hydrogen demand optimization of infrastructure for hydrogen production transport and storage development of viable business cases and environmental impact evaluations using life cycle assessments. We highlight challenges and opportunities that are common across studies of the business cases for hydrogen in Germany the UK the Netherlands Switzerland and Norway. The use of hydrogen in the industrial sector is an important driver and could incentivise large-scale hydrogen value chains. In the long-term hydrogen becomes important also for the transport sector. Hydrogen production from natural gas with capture and permanent storage of the produced CO2 (CCS) enables large-scale hydrogen production in the intermediate future and is complementary to hydrogen from renewable power. Furthermore timely establishment of hydrogen and CO2 infrastructures serves as an anchor to support the deployment of carbon dioxide removal technologies such as direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS) and biohydrogen production with CCS. Significant public support is needed to ensure coordinated planning governance and the establishment of supportive regulatory frameworks which foster the growth of hydrogen markets.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis for Scotland Short-Sea Ferries
Feb 2023
Publication
The pathway to zero carbon emissions passing through carbon emissions reduction is mandatory in the shipping industry. Regarding the various methodologies and technologies reviewed for this purpose Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) has been used as an excellent tool to determine economic feasibility and sustainability and to present directions. However insufficient commercial applications cause a conflict of opinion on which fuel is the key to decarbonisation. Many LCCA comparison studies about eco-friendly ship propulsion claim different results. In order to overcome this and discover the key factors that affect the overall comparative analysis and results in the maritime field it is necessary to conduct the comparative analysis considering more diverse case ships case routes and various types that combine each system. This study aims to analyse which greener fuels are most economically beneficial for the shipping sector and prove the factors influencing different results in LCCA. This study was conducted on hydrogen ammonia and electric energy which are carbon-free fuels among various alternative fuels that are currently in the limelight. As the power source a PEMFC and battery were used as the main power source and a solar PV system was installed as an auxiliary power source to compare economic feasibility. Several cost data for LCCA were selected from various feasible case studies. As the difficulty caused by the storage and transportation of hydrogen and ammonia should not be underestimated in this study the LCCA considers not only the CapEx and OpEx but also fuel transport costs. As a result fuel cell propulsion systems with hydrogen as fuel proved financial effectiveness for short-distance ferries as they are more inexpensive than ammonia-fuelled PEMFCs and batteries. The fuel cost takes around half of the total life-cycle cost during the life span.
Critical Parameters Controlling Wettability in Hydrogen Underground Storage - An Analytical Study
Sep 2022
Publication
Hypothesis.<br/>The large-scale implementation of hydrogen economy requires immense storage spaces to facilitate the periodic storage/production cycles. Extensive modelling of hydrogen transport in porous media is required to comprehend the hydrogen-induced complexities prior to storage to avoid energy loss. Wettability of hydrogen-brine-rock systems influence flow properties (e.g. capillary pressure and relative permeability curves) and the residual saturations which are all essential for subsurface hydrogen systems.<br/>Model.<br/>This study aims to understand which parameters critically control the contact angle for hydrogen-brine-rock systems using the surface force analysis following the DLVO theory and sensitivity analysis. Furthermore the effect of roughness is studied using the Cassie-Baxter model.<br/>Findings.<br/>Our results reveal no considerable difference between H2 and other gases such as N2. Besides the inclusion of roughness highly affects the observed apparent contact angles and even lead to water-repelling features. It was observed that contact angle does not vary significantly with variations of surface charge and density at high salinity which is representative for reservoir conditions. Based on the analysis it is speculated that the influence of roughness on contact angle becomes significant at low water saturation (i.e. high capillary pressure).
Geochemical Effects on Storage Gases and Reservoir Rock during Underground Hydrogen Storage: A Depleted North Sea Oil Reservoir Case Study
May 2023
Publication
In this work geochemical modelling using PhreeqC was carried out to evaluate the effects of geochemical reactions on the performance of underground hydrogen storage (UHS). Equilibrium exchange and mineral reactions were considered in the model. Moreover reaction kinetics were considered to evaluate the geochemical effect on underground hydrogen storage over an extended period of 30 years. The developed model was first validated against experimental data adopted from the published literature by comparing the modelling and literature values of H2 and CO2 solubility in water at varying conditions. Furthermore the effects of pressure temperature salinity and CO2% on the H2 and CO2 inventory and rock properties in a typical sandstone reservoir were evaluated over 30 years. Results show that H2 loss over 30 years is negligible (maximum 2%) through the studied range of conditions. The relative loss of CO2 is much more pronounced compared to H2 gas with losses of up to 72%. Therefore the role of CO2 as a cushion gas will be affected by the CO2 gas losses as time passes. Hence remedial CO2 gas injections should be considered to maintain the reservoir pressure throughout the injection and withdrawal processes. Moreover the relative volume of CO2 increases with the increase in temperature and decrease in pressure. Furthermore the reservoir rock properties porosity and permeability are affected by the underground hydrogen storage process and more specifically by the presence of CO2 gas. CO2 dissolves carbonate minerals inside the reservoir rock causing an increase in the rock’s porosity and permeability. Consequently the rock’s gas storage capacity and flow properties are enhanced
Quantitative Risk Assessment Methodology for Hydrogen Tank Rupture in a Tunnel Fire
Dec 2022
Publication
This study presents a methodology of a quantitative risk assessment for the scenario of an onboard hydrogen storage tank rupture and tunnel fire incident. The application of the methodology is demonstrated on a road tunnel. The consequence analysis is carried out for the rupture of a 70 MPa 62.4-litre hydrogen storage tank in a fire that has a thermally activated pressure relief device (TPRD) failed or blocked during an incident. Scenarios with two states of charge (SoC) of the tank i.e. SoC = 99% and SoC = 59% are investigated. The risks in terms of fatalities per vehicle per year and the cost per incident are assessed. It is found that for the reduction in the risk with the hydrogen-powered vehicle in a road tunnel fire incident to the acceptable level of 10−5 fatality/vehicle/year the fireresistance rating (FRR) of the hydrogen storage tank should exceed 84 min. The FRR increase to this level reduces the societal risk to an acceptable level. The increase in the FRR to 91 min reduces the risk in terms of the cost of the incident to GBP 300 following the threshold cost of minor injury published by the UK Health and Safety Executive. The Frequency–Number (F–N) of the fatalities curve is developed to demonstrate the effect of mitigation measures on the risk reduction to socially acceptable levels. The performed sensitivity study confirms that with the broad range of input parameters including the fire brigade response time the risk of rupture of standard hydrogen tank-TPRD systems inside the road tunnel is unacceptable. One of the solutions enabling an inherently safer use of hydrogen-powered vehicles in tunnels is the implementation of breakthrough safety technology—the explosion free in a fire self-venting (TPRD-less) tanks.
Battery and Hydrogen Energy Storage Control in a Smart Energy Network with Flexible Energy Demand Using Deep Reinforcement Learning
Sep 2023
Publication
Smart energy networks provide an effective means to accommodate high penetrations of variable renewable energy sources like solar and wind which are key for the deep decarbonisation of energy production. However given the variability of the renewables as well as the energy demand it is imperative to develop effective control and energy storage schemes to manage the variable energy generation and achieve desired system economics and environmental goals. In this paper we introduce a hybrid energy storage system composed of battery and hydrogen energy storage to handle the uncertainties related to electricity prices renewable energy production and consumption. We aim to improve renewable energy utilisation and minimise energy costs and carbon emissions while ensuring energy reliability and stability within the network. To achieve this we propose a multi-agent deep deterministic policy gradient approach which is a deep reinforcement learning-based control strategy to optimise the scheduling of the hybrid energy storage system and energy demand in real time. The proposed approach is model-free and does not require explicit knowledge and rigorous mathematical models of the smart energy network environment. Simulation results based on real-world data show that (i) integration and optimised operation of the hybrid energy storage system and energy demand reduce carbon emissions by 78.69% improve cost savings by 23.5% and improve renewable energy utilisation by over 13.2% compared to other baseline models; and (ii) the proposed algorithm outperforms the state-of-the-art self-learning algorithms like the deep-Q network.
From Waste to Energy: Enhancing Fuel and Hydrogen Production through Pyrolysis and In-Line Reforming of Plastic Wastes
Jun 2024
Publication
Plastics have become integral to modern life playing crucial roles in diverse industries such as agriculture electronics automotive packaging and construction. However their excessive use and inadequate management have had adverse environmental impacts posing threats to terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Consequently researchers are increasingly searching for more sustainable ways of managing plastic wastes. Pyrolysis a chemical recycling method holds promise for producing valuable fuel sustainably. This study explores the process of the pyrolysis of plastic and incorporates recent advancements. Additionally the study investigates the integration of reforming into the pyrolysis process to improve hydrogen production. Hydrogen a clean and eco-friendly fuel holds significance in transport engines power generation fuel cells and as a major commodity chemical. Key process parameters influencing the final products for pyrolysis and in-line reforming are evaluated. In light of fossil fuel depletion and climate change the pyrolysis and in-line reforming strategy for hydrogen production is anticipated to gain prominence in the future. Amongst the various strategies studied the pyrolysis and in-line steam reforming process is identified as the most effective method for optimising hydrogen production from plastic wastes.
Review of the Status and Prospects of Fiber Optic Hydrogen Sensing Technology
Aug 2023
Publication
With the unprecedented development of green and renewable energy sources the proportion of clean hydrogen (H2 ) applications grows rapidly. Since H2 has physicochemical properties of being highly permeable and combustible high-performance H2 sensors to detect and monitor hydrogen concentration are essential. This review discusses a variety of fiber-optic-based H2 sensor technologies since the year 1984 including: interferometer technology fiber grating technology surface plasma resonance (SPR) technology micro lens technology evanescent field technology integrated optical waveguide technology direct transmission/reflection detection technology etc. These technologies have been evolving from simply pursuing high sensitivity and low detection limits (LDL) to focusing on multiple performance parameters to match various application demands such as: high temperature resistance fast response speed fast recovery speed large concentration range low cross sensitivity excellent long-term stability etc. On the basis of palladium (Pd)-sensitive material alloy metals catalysts or nanoparticles are proposed to improve the performance of fiberoptic-based H2 sensors including gold (Au) silver (Ag) platinum (Pt) zinc oxide (ZnO) titanium oxide (TiO2 ) tungsten oxide (WO3 ) Mg70Ti30 polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) graphene oxide (GO) etc. Various microstructure processes of the side and end of optical fiber H2 sensors are also discussed in this review.
Design and Optimization of a Type-C Tank for Liquid Hydrogen Marine Transport
May 2023
Publication
As one of the most promising renewable energy sources hydrogen has the excellent environmental benefit of producing zero emissions. A key technical challenge in using hydrogen across sectors is placed on its storage technology. The storage temperature of liquid hydrogen (20 K or 253 C) is close to absolute zero so the storage materials and the insulation layers are subjected to extremely stringent requirements against the cryogenic behaviour of the medium. In this context this research proposed to design a large liquid hydrogen type-C tank with AISI (American Iron and Steel Institution) type 316 L stainless steel as the metal barrier using Vapor-Cooled Shield (VCS) and Rigid Polyurethane Foams (RPF) as the insulation layer. A parametric study on the design of the insulation layer was carried out by establishing a thermodynamic model. The effects of VCS location on heat ingress to the liquid hydrogen transport tank and insulation temperature distribution were investigated and the optimal location of the VCS in the insulation was identified. Research outcomes finally suggest two optimal design schemes: (1) when the thickness of the insulation layer is determined Self-evaporation Vapor-Cooled Shield (SVCS) and Forcedevaporation Vapor-Cooled Shield (FVCS) can reduce heat transfer by 47.84% and 85.86% respectively; (2) when the liquid hydrogen evaporation capacity is determined SVCS and FVCS can reduce the thickness of the insulation layer by 50% and 67.93% respectively.
Review of Sampling and Analysis of Particulate Matter in Hydrogen Fuel
Sep 2023
Publication
This review presents state-of-the-art for representative sampling of hydrogen from hydrogen refueling stations. Documented sampling strategies are presented as well as examples of commercially available equipment for sampling at the hydrogen refueling nozzle. Filter media used for sampling is listed and the performance of some of the filters evaluated. It was found that the filtration efficiency of 0.2 and 5 mm filters were not significantly different when exposed to 200 and 300 nm particles. Several procedures for gravimetric analysis are presented and some of the challenges are identified to be filter degradation pinhole formation and conditioning of the filter prior to measurement. Lack of standardization of procedures was identified as a limitation for result comparison. Finally the review summarizes results including particulate concentration in hydrogen fuel quality data published. It was found that less than 10% of the samples were in violation with the tolerance limit.
Lifetime Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Offshore Hydrogen Production
Aug 2023
Publication
With a limited global carbon budget it is imperative that decarbonisation decisions are based on accurate holistic accounts of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced to assess their validity. Here the upstream GHG emissions of potential UK offshore Green and Blue hydrogen production are compared to GHG emissions from hydrogen produced through electrolysis using UK national grid electricity and the ‘business-as-usual’ case of continuing to combust methane. Based on an operational life of 25 years and producing 0.5MtH2 per year for each hydrogen process the results show that Blue hydrogen will emit between 200-262MtCO2e of GHG emissions depending on the carbon capture rates achieved (39%–90%) Green hydrogen produced via electrolysis using 100% renewable electricity from offshore wind will emit 20MtCO2e and hydrogen produced via electrolysis powered by the National Grid will emit between 103-168MtCO2e depending of the success of its NetZero strategy. The ‘business-as-usual’ case of continuing to combust methane releases 250MtCO2e over the same lifetime. This study finds that Blue hydrogen at scale is not compatible with the Paris Agreement reduces energy security and will require a substantial GHG emissions investment which excludes it from being a ‘low carbon technology’ and should not be considered for any decarbonisation strategies going forward.
Energy Storage Strategy - Narrative
Feb 2023
Publication
This narrative document sets out the main rationale for hydrogen storage development at scale in the UK: - To meet net zero the UK will need considerable energy storage - Hydrogen storage will be a major and essential part of this - Physical hydrogen storage is needed in the UK - Only geological hydrogen storage can deliver at the scale needed within the timescales for net zero - Geological hydrogen storage should be supported through a viable business model now to ensure it comes online in the 2030s.
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