Production & Supply Chain

Solar-to-hydrogen plants are predominantly based on steam electrolysis. Steam electrolysis requires water electricity and heat. The excess electric energy is generally converted into hydrogen via an electrolyser. The use of waste heat in hydrogen generation process promises energy efficiency improvement and production fluctuation reductions. This work investigates the techno-economic performance of the proposed system which recovers the waste heat from molten carbonate fuel cell and uses solar energy to produce steam. Comparison of thermally assisted solar system with corresponding solar system is done. The fuel cell provides 80% of the required thermal energy. The solar PV array provides the required electricity. The thermally assisted solar-to-hydrogen system annual energy efficiency (38.5 %) is higher than that of solar- to- hydrogen system. The investment cost of the proposed system is 2.4 % higher than that using only solar parabolic trough collector for the same required amount of heat. The advantage is that the fuel cell simultaneously produces electricity and heat. The recovery of waste heat allows getting an annual overall efficiency of 63.2 % for the molten carbonate fuel cell. It yields 2152 MWh of electricity per year. The 1 MW electrolysers annually generates 74 tonnes of hydrogen.

This paper presents a real-time simulation with a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL)-based approach for verifying the performance of electrolyzer systems in providing grid support. Hydrogen refueling stations may use electrolyzer systems to generate hydrogen and are proposed to have the potential of becoming smarter loads that can proactively provide grid services. On the basis of experimental findings electrolyzer systems with balance of plant are observed to have a high level of controllability and hence can add flexibility to the grid from the demand side. A generic front end controller (FEC) is proposed which enables an optimal operation of the load on the basis of market and grid conditions. This controller has been simulated and tested in a real-time environment with electrolyzer hardware for a performance assessment. It can optimize the operation of electrolyzer systems on the basis of the information collected by a communication module. Real-time simulation tests are performed to verify the performance of the FEC-driven electrolyzers to provide grid support that enables flexibility greater economic revenue and grid support for hydrogen producers under dynamic conditions. The FEC proposed in this paper is tested with electrolyzers however it is proposed as a generic control topology that is applicable to any load.

On this week's show we speak with Trevor Best CEO of Syzygy Plasmonics a Houston area startup who is a pioneer in the field of photocatalytic based hydrogen production. The company has recently closed its series A funding round. We discuss with Trevor the potential applications of the Syzygy approach and where they are aiming to engage the market first as well as his view of the evolution of the hydrogen market today. All this and more on the show!

The podcast can be found on their website

(1) The German energy system transformation towards an entirely renewable supply is expected to incorporate the extensive use of green hydrogen. This carbon-free fuel allows the decarbonization of end-use sectors such as industrial high-temperature processes or heavy-duty transport that remain challenging to be covered by green electricity only. However it remains unclear whether the current legislative framework supports green hydrogen production or is an obstacle to its rollout. (2) This work analyzes the relevant laws and ordinances regarding their implications on potential hydrogen production plant operators. (3) Due to unbundling-related constraints potential operators from the group of electricity transport system and distribution system operators face lacking permission to operate production plants. Moreover ownership remains forbidden for them. The same applies to natural gas transport system operators. The case is less clear for natural gas distribution system operators where explicit regulation is missing. (4) It is finally analyzed if the production of green hydrogen is currently supported in competition with fossil hydrogen production not only by the legal framework but also by the National Hydrogen Strategy and the Amendment of the Renewable Energies Act. It can be concluded that in recent amendments of German energy legislation regulatory support for green hydrogen in Germany was found. The latest legislation has clarified crucial points concerning the ownership and operation of electrolyzers and the treatment of green hydrogen as a renewable energy carrier.

The production of green hydrogen from renewable energy by means of water electrolysis is a promising approach to support energy sector decarbonization. This paper presents a techno-economic model of plants with PV sources connected to electrolysis in self-consumption regime that considers the dynamics of electrolysis systems. The model calculates the optimal hourly dispatch of the electrolysis system including the operational states (production standby and idle) the load factor in production and the energy imports and exports to the electricity grid. Results indicate that the model is a useful decision support tool to operate electrolysis plants connected to PV plants in self-consumption regimes with the target of reducing hydrogen production costs.

Hydrogen produced without carbon emissions could be a useful fuel as nations look to decarbonize their electricity transport and industry sectors. Using the iodine–sulfur (IS) cycle coupled with a nuclear heat source is one method for producing hydrogen without the use of fossil fuels. An economic dispatch model was developed for a nuclear-driven IS system to determine hydrogen sale prices that would make such a system profitable. The system studied is the HTTR GT/H2 a design for power and hydrogen cogeneration at the Japan Atomic Energy Agency’s High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor. This study focuses on the development of the economic model and the role that input data plays in the final calculated values. Using a historical price duration curve shows that the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) or breakeven sale price of hydrogen would need to be 98.1 JPY/m3 or greater. Synthetic time histories were also used and found the LCOH to be 67.5 JPY/m3 . The price duration input was found to have a significant effect on the LCOH. As such great care should be used in these economic dispatch analyses to select reasonable input assumptions.

The investment costs of water electrolysis represent one key challenge for the realisation of renewable hydrogen-based energy systems. This work presents a technology cost assessment and outlook towards 2030 for alkaline electrolysers (AEL) and PEM electrolysers (PEMEL) in the MW to GW range taking into consideration the effects of plant size and expected technology developments. Critical selected data was fitted to a modified power law to describe the cost of an electrolyser plant based on the overall capacity and a learning/technology development rate to derive cost estimations for different PEMEL and AEL plant capacities towards 2030. The analysis predicts that the CAPEX gap between AEL and PEMEL technologies will decrease significantly towards 2030 with plant size until 1 e10 MW range. Beyond this only marginal cost reductions can be expected with CAPEX values approaching 320e400 $/kW for large scale (greater than 100 MW) plants by 2030 with subsequent cost reductions possible. Learning rates for electrolysers were estimated at 25 e30% for both AEL and PEMEL which are significantly higher than the learning rates reported in previous literature.

This work focuses on tests for control reserve of a novel Power-to-Gas-to-Power platform based on proton exchange membrane technologies and on pure oxygen instead of air in the re-electrification process. The technologies are intended as a further option to stabilize the power system therefore helping integrating renewable energy into the power system. The tests are based on the pre-qualification tests used by Swissgrid but are not identical in order to capture the maximum dynamics by the plants. The main characteristics identified are the ramping capabilities of ±8% per unit per second for the electrolyzer system and ±33% per unit per second for the fuel cell system. The ramping capabilities are mainly limited by the underlying processes of polymer electrolyte membrane technologies. Additionally the current and projected round-trip efficiencies for Power-to-Gas-to-Power of 39% in 2025 and 48% in 2040 are derived. Furthermore during the successful tests the usage of oxygen in the present Power-to-Gas and Gas-to-Power processes and its influence on the dynamics and the round-trip efficiency was assessed. In consequence fundamental data on the efficiency and the dynamics of the Power-to-Gas-to-Power technologies is presented. This data can serve as basis for prospective assessments on the suitability of the technologies investigated for frequency control in power systems.

Latin America is starting its energy transition. In Colombia with its abundant natural resources and fossil fuel reserves hydrogen (H2 ) could play a key role. This contribution analyzes the potential of blue H2 production in Colombia as a possible driver of the H2 economy. The study assesses the natural resources available to produce blue H2 in the context of the recently launched National Hydrogen Roadmap. Results indicate that there is great potential for low-emission blue H2 production in Colombia using coal as feedstock. Such potential besides allowing a more sustainable use of non-renewable resources would pave the way for green H2 deployment in Colombia. Blue H2 production from coal could range from 700 to 8000 ktH2 /year by 2050 under conservative and ambitious scenarios respectively which could supply up to 1.5% of the global H2 demand by 2050. However while feedstock availability is promising for blue H2 production carbon dioxide (CO2 ) capture capacities and investment costs could limit this potential in Colombia. Indeed results of this work indicate that capture capacities of 15 to 180 MtCO2 /year (conservative and ambitious scenarios) need to be developed by 2050 and that the required investment for H2 deployment would be above that initially envisioned by the government. Further studies on carbon capture utilization and storage capacity implementation of a clear public policy and a more detailed hydrogen strategy for the inclusion of blue H2 in the energy mix are required for establishing a low-emission H2 economy in the country.

Biogas is a renewable feedstock that can be used to produce hydrogen through the decomposition of biomethane. However the economics of the process are not well studied and understood especially in cases where solid carbons are also produced and which have a detrimental effect on the performance of the catalysts. The scale as well as product diversification of a biogas plant to produce hydrogen and other value-added carbons plays a crucial role in determining the feasibility of biogasto-hydrogen projects. Through a techno-economic study using the discounted cash flow method it has been shown that there are no feasible sizes of plants that can produce hydrogen at the target price of USD 3/kg or lower. However for self-funded anaerobic digestor plants retrofitting modular units for hydrogen production would only make financial sense at biogas production capacities of more than 412 m3/h. A sensitivity analysis has also shown that the cost competitiveness is dependent on the type of carbon formed and low-grade carbon black has a negative effect on economic feasibility. Hydrogen produced from biogas would thus not be able to compete with grey hydrogen production but rather with current green hydrogen production costs.

Currently a progressively different approach to the generation of power and the production of fuels for the automotive sector as well as for domestic applications is being taken. As a result research on the feasibility of applying renewable energy sources to the present energy scenario has been progressively growing aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Following more than one approach the integration of renewables mainly involves the utilization of biomass-derived raw material and the combination of power generated via clean sources with conventional power generation systems. The aim of this review article is to provide a satisfactory overview of the most recent progress in the catalysis of hydrogen production through sustainable reforming and CO2 utilization. In particular attention is focused on the route that starting from bioethanol reforming for H2 production leads to the use of the produced CO2 for different purposes and by means of different catalytic processes passing through the water–gas shift stage. The newest approaches reported in the literature are reviewed showing that it is possible to successfully produce “green” and sustainable hydrogen which can represent a power storage technology and its utilization is a strategy for the integration of renewables into the power generation scenario. Moreover this hydrogen may be used for CO2 catalytic conversion to hydrocarbons thus giving CO2 added value.

An energy storage system based on a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer system which could be managed by a nanoGrid for Home Applications (nGfHA) is able to convert the surplus of electric energy produced by renewable sources into hydrogen which can be stored in pressurized tanks. The PEM electrolyzer system must be able to operate at variable feeding power for converting all the surplus of renewable electric energy into hydrogen in reasonable time. In this article the dynamic electric simulation model of a PEM electrolyzer system with its pressurized hydrogen tanks is developed in a proper calculation environment. Through the calculation code the stack voltage and current peaks to a supply power variation from the minimum value (about 56 W) to the maximum value (about 440 W) are controlled and zeroed to preserve the stack the best range of the operating stack current is evaluated and hydrogen production is monitored.

This study documents the results of economic assessment concerning four variants of coal gasification to hydrogen in a shell reactor. That assessment has been made using discounting methods (NPV: net present value IRR: internal rate of return) as well as indicators based on a free cash flow to firm (FCFF) approach. Additionally sensitivity analysis has been carried out along with scenario analysis in current market conditions concerning prices of hard coal lignite hydrogen and CO2 allowances as well as capital expenditures and costs related to carbon capture and storage (CCS) systems. Based on NPV results a negative economic assessment has been obtained for all the analyzed variants varying within the range of EUR −903 to −142 million although the variants based on hard coal achieved a positive IRR (5.1–5.7%) but lower than the assumed discount rates. In Polish conditions the gasification of lignite seems to be unprofitable in the assumed scale of total investment outlays and the current price of coal feedstock. The sensitivity analyses indicate that at least a 20% increase of hydrogen price would be required or a similar reduction of capital expenditures (CAPEX) and costs of operation for the best variant to make NPV positive. Analyses have also indicated that on the economic basis only the prices of CO2 allowances exceeding EUR 40/Mg (EUR 52/Mg for lignite) would generate savings due to the availability of CCS systems.

The main objective of this paper is to develop a dynamic emulator of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer (EL) through an equivalent electrical model. Experimental investigations have highlighted the capacitive effect of EL when subjecting to dynamic current profiles which so far has not been reported in the literature. Thanks to a thorough experimental study the electrical domain of a PEM EL composed of 3 cells has been modeled under dynamic operating conditions. The dynamic emulator is based on an equivalent electrical scheme that takes into consideration the dynamic behavior of the EL in cases of sudden variation in the supply current. The model parameters were identified for a suitable current interval to consider them as constant and then tested with experimental data. The obtained results through the developed dynamic emulator have demonstrated its ability to accurately replicate the dynamic behavior of a PEM EL.

In this work a metal cobalt catalyst was synthesized and its activity in the hydrogen production process was tested. The substrates were water and ethanol. Activity tests were conducted at a temperature range of 350–600 °C water to ethanol molar ratio of 3 to 5 and a feed flow of 0.4 to 1.2 mol/h. The catalyst had a specific surface area of 1.75 m2/g. The catalyst was most active at temperatures in the range of 500–600 °C. Under the most favorable conditions the ethanol conversion was 97% the hydrogen production efficiency was 4.9 mol (H2)/mol(ethanol) and coke production was very low (16 mg/h). Apart from hydrogen and coke CO2 CH4 CO and traces of C2H2 and C2H4 were formed.

This paper proposes a method for improving hydrogen generation using pulse current in a proton exchange membrane-type electrolyzer (PEMEL). Traditional methods of electrolysis using direct current are known as the simplest approach to produce hydrogen. However it is highly dependent on environmental variables such as the temperature and catalyst used to enhance the rate of electrolysis. Therefore we propose electrolysis using a pulse current that can apply several dependent variables rather than environmental variables. The proposed method overcomes the difficulties in selecting the frequency of the pulse current by deriving factors affecting hydrogen generation while changing the concentration generated by the cell interface during the pulsed water-electrolysis process. The correlation between the electrolyzer load and the frequency characteristics was analyzed and the limit value of the applicable frequency of the pulse current was derived through electrical modeling. In addition the operating characteristics of PEMEL could be predicted and the PEMEL using the proposed pulse current was verified through experiments.

Hydrogen production and refueling integrated station can play an important role in the development of hydrogen transportation and fuel cell vehicles and actively promote the energy transformation. By using DC system for hydrogen production and refueling the conversion links can be reduced and the system efficiency can be effectively improved. In this paper a new scheme of DC interconnection for hydrogen production and refueling integrated station is proposed and the modular modeling and operation capability evaluation method are proposed including the characteristic analysis of integrated station the modular modeling and evaluation method for multiple integrated stations under DC interconnection. The DC interconnection system of five integrated stations is constructed and operation capability improvement of integrated stations after adopting the innovative DC interconnection scheme is analyzed. On this basis the system simulation model based on MATLAB/Simulink and physical test platform are built to verify the effectiveness of the theoretical analysis.

Increased consumption of low-carbon hydrogen is prominent in the decarbonisation strategies of many jurisdictions. Yet prior studies assessing the current most prevalent production method steam reformation of natural gas (SRNG) have not sufficiently evaluated how process design decisions affect life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This techno-economic case study assesses cradle-to-gate emissions of hydrogen produced from SRNG with CO2 capture and storage (CCS) in British Columbia Canada. Four process configurations with amine-based CCS using existing technology and novel process designs are evaluated. We find that cradle-to-gate GHG emission intensity ranges from 0.7 to 2.7 kgCO2e/kgH2 – significantly lower than previous studies of SRNG with CCS and similar to the range of published estimates for hydrogen produced from renewable-powered electrolysis. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) in this study (US$1.1–1.3/kgH2) is significantly lower than published estimates for renewable-powered electrolysis.

Environmental issues related to greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions have pushed the development of new technologies that will allow the economic production of low-carbon energy vectors such as hydrogen (H2 ) methane (CH4 ) and liquid fuels. Dry reforming of methane (DRM) has gained increased attention since it uses CH4 and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) which are two main greenhouse gases (GHG) as feedstock for the production of syngas which is a mixture of H2 and carbon monoxide (CO) and can be used as a building block for the production of fuels. Since H2 has been identified as a key enabler of the energy transition a lot of studies have aimed to benefit from the environmental advantages of DRM and to use it as a pathway for a sustainable H2 production. However there are several challenges related to this process and to its use for H2 production such as catalyst deactivation and the low H2/CO ratio of the syngas produced which is usually below 1.0. This paper presents the recent advances in the catalyst development for H2 production via DRM the processes that could be combined with DRM to overcome these challenges and the current industrial processes using DRM. The objective is to assess in which conditions DRM could be used for H2 production and the gaps in literature data preventing better evaluation of the environmental and economic potential of this process.

Solar-driven electrolysis of water to generate hydrogen is emerging as a viable strategy to decarbonize the global energy economy. However this direction is more expensive than traditional fossil fuel generation of hydrogen and effective pathways to lower this cost need to be identified. Here we report a Monte Carlo approach to explore a wide range of input assumptions to identify key cost drivers targets and localized conditions necessary for competitive stand-alone dedicated PV powered hydrogen electrolysis. We determine the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) considering historical weather data for specific locations to model our PV system and optimize its size compared to the electrolyzer. This analysis and its methods show the potential for green hydrogen production using off-grid PV shows the merits of remote systems in areas of high solar resource and provides cost and performance targets for electrolyzer technologies.

How do we get green hydrogen (and green ammonia) production to scale and make it cost competitive? It's a great question and we ask it all the time on the show. Well Alicia Eastman Co-founder & Managing Director of InterContinental Energy (ICE) may be one of the best authorities in the world on this topic and she joins us on this episode of EAH to tell the team all about her and ICE's work developing the Asian Renewable Energy Hub (AREH). Located in Western Australia the AREH when completed will be the largest renewable energy project by total generation capacity on the planet. At 26 GW it surpasses even the likes of the Three Gorges Dam and will act as a central production and distribution point for huge quantities of clean hydrogen and ammonia for offtakers and customers across APAC and beyond. The AREH is a truly massive project that has global implications for the global energy landscape of the future.

The podcast can be found on their website.

On this weeks episode the team are talking all things hydrogen with Sebastian-Justus Schmidt Chairman of Enapter and Thomas Chrometzka Head of Strategy at Enapter. On the show we discuss Enapter’s Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) electrolyser and why Enapter believe that their modular electrolyser approach will revolutionise the cost of green hydrogen. We also discuss the wide array of use cases and sectors that Enapter are already working with to provide their solution as well as their view on where the current barriers exist for the hydrogen market. All this and more on the show!

The podcast can be found on their website

Alkaline water electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources is one of the most promising strategies for environmentally friendly hydrogen production. However wind and solar energy sources are highly dependent on weather conditions. As a result power fluctuations affect the electrolyzer and cause several negative effects. Considering these limiting effects which reduce the water electrolysis efficiency a novel operation strategy is proposed in this study. It is based on pumping the electrolyte according to the current density supplied by a solar PV module in order to achieve the suitable fluid dynamics conditions in an electrolysis cell. To this aim a mathematical model including the influence of electrode-membrane distance temperature and electrolyte flow rate has been developed and used as optimization tool. The obtained results confirm the convenience of the selected strategy especially when the electrolyzer is powered by renewable energies.

This study aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere and effectively utilize wasted resources by converting methane the main component of biogas into hydrogen. Therefore a reactor was developed to decompose methane into carbon and hydrogen using solar thermal sources instead of traditional energy sources such as coal and petroleum. The optical distributions were analyzed using TracePro a Monte Carlo ray-tracing-based program. In addition Fluent a computational fluid dynamics program was used for the heat and mass transfer and chemical reaction. The cylindrical indirect heating reactor rotates at a constant speed to prevent damage by the heat source concentrated at the solar furnace. The inside of the reactor was filled with a porous catalyst for methane decomposition and the outside was surrounded by insulation to reduce heat loss. The performance of the reactor according to the cavity model was calculated when solar heat was concentrated on the reactor surface and methane was supplied into the reactor in an environment with a solar irradiance of 700 W/m2 wind speed of 1 m/s and outdoor temperature of 25 °C. As a result temperature methane mass fraction distribution and heat loss amounts for the two cavities were obtained and it was found that the effect on the conversion rate was largely dependent on a temperature over 1000 °C in the reactor. Moreover the heat loss of the full-cavity model decreased by 12.5% and the methane conversion rate increased by 33.5% compared to the semi-cavity model. In conclusion the high-temperature environment of the reactor has a significant effect on the increase in conversion rate with an additional effect of reducing heat loss.

The European Commission have just stated that hydrogen would play a major role in the economic recovery of post-COVID-19 EU countries. Hydrogen is recognised as one of the key players in a fossil fuel-free world in decades to come. However commercially practiced pathways to hydrogen production todays are associated with a considerable amount of carbon emissions. The Paris Climate Change Agreement has set out plans for an international commitment to reduce carbon emissions within the forthcoming decades. A sustainable hydrogen future would only be achievable if hydrogen production is “designed” to capture such emissions. Today nearly 98% of global hydrogen production relies on the utilisation of fossil fuels. Among these steam methane reforming (SMR) boasts the biggest share of nearly 3 50% of the global generation. SMR processes correspond to a significant amount of carbon emissions at various points throughout the process. Despite the dark side of the SMR processes they are projected to play a major role in hydrogen production by the first half of this century. This that a sustainable yet clean short/medium-term hydrogen production is only possible by devising a plan to efficiently capture this co-produced carbon as stated in the latest International Energy Agency (IEA) reports. Here we have carried out an in-depth technical review of the processes employed in sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming (SE-SMR) an emerging technology in low-carbon SMR for combined carbon capture and hydrogen production. This paper aims to provide an in-depth review on two key challenging elements of SE-SMR i.e. the advancements in catalysts/adsorbents preparation and current approaches in process synthesis and optimisation including the employment of artificial intelligence in SE-SMR processes. To the best of the authors‟ knowledge there is a clear gap in the literature where the above areas have been scrutinised in a systematic and coherent fashion. The gap is even more pronounced in the application of AI in SE-SMR technologies. As a result this work aims to fill this gap within the scientific literature.